Theories of devolopment

Human growth and development requires a lot of things to happen. In many cases, various issues that a child undergoes when born affect the growth and development of the child. Therefore, the situations in life that a child experiences, the kind of environment (Wodarski, & Dziegielewski, 2002, p. 40) a child is brought up in and the kind of people the child relates to affects the growth and development of that person.

The factors that affect human growth and development can be either natural or human inflicted depending on the cause of that situation. There are various theories that have been put forward in order to help people understand the life cycle development and the human behavior. These theories that have been selected for this case study are

FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

According to the Psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), human development and growth is always driven by motives and emotions that people hold and which people are mostly unaware of those motives and emotions. The theory explains that the earlier experience that an individual had helps in shaping the life of that particular individual. Every experience that a person undergoes in this would shapes how the life of that person will be and how the relationship of the individual and the other people will be in future (Beckett, C., & Taylor, 2010, p.30).

ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The theory of Psychosocial Development as developed by Erik Erikson (1902- ) which revised Freud’s theory of Psychoanalytic, places more emphasis on the influences related to social experiences of an individual. The theory also emphasizes on the development of stares using a broader focus, giving emphasis to the ego and expression of views of human nature that are positive and application of the theory throughout the life of human beings (Wodarski, & Dziegielewski, 2002, p.5).

characteristics of indian society

India has a long history and its cultural tradition is quite old and extremely complex. India's cultural division is not only one of the most ancient, but also it is one of the most widespread and varied. Traditional features of India are very strong. French, British and other cultures are seen in India, but Indian value systems still remain. It is second most populated country in the world. It has its own geographic, ethnic, religious, and linguistic background.  

1. Geographical Factor

• The natural boundaries provide India a geographical unity.
• It is a country in South Asia that lies entirely on Indian Plate in the northern portion of Indo Australian Plate.
• The area of Indian society was so vast. The land area is 33 million square kilometer. India is the 7th largest country in the world.
• It lies north Equator.

2. Unity and Diversity

• India is the second most populous and seventh largest country of the world.
• It has 2.4 per cent of world’s land area and about 16 percent of world’s population.
• It has a history spanning over 5000 years of human habitation, 3000 years before Christ and 2000 years after Christ.
• It has a cultural heritage handed down by the immigrant Aryans from across the Himalayas, the natives – the pre-Aryan settlers called Dasyus or Dasas by the Aryans and invading civilizations.
• Its social, economic and cultural diversities are also reflected in habital conditions in rural, urban and semi-urban areas. 
• Despite these diversities, what is observed about India is that there is unity in diversity.
• This unity in diversity has become a part of India’s self identity.

3. Religious Factor

• India, being a democratic, socialistic and secular republic, has no state religion.
• India is the birth place of many world religions and almost all major world religions are practiced by their respective followers.
• India is a land where people of different religions and cultures live in harmony. This harmony is seen in the celebration of festivals. The message of love and brotherhood is expressed by all the religions and cultures of India. 
• The major religions of India are Hinduism (majority religion), Islam (largest minority religion), Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith. 

4. Language

• The languages of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages (a branch of Indo-European) spoken by 74% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 24% of Indians.
• Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates.
• The principal official language of the Republic of India is Standard Hindi, while English is the secondary official language.
• The constitution of India states that "The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script".
• Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred; the 1961 census recognized 1,652. 
• According to Census of India of 2001, 30 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000. 
• Three millennia of language contact has led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia.
• Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.

5. Races and Ethnicity

• Indian population is polygenetic and is a mixture of various races.
• There are many diverse ethnic groups among the people of India.
• The 6 main ethnic groups are as follows:

1. Negrito: 

• The Negritos were the earliest people to come to India. 
• They have survived in their original habitat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese and the Great Andamanese are some of the examples. 
• Some hill tribes like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans and Kurumbas are found in some patches in Southern part of mainland India. 

2. Proto - Australoids or Austrics: 

• These were the next ethnic group to arrive
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

Intelligence types

Every human have been learning since the day that they were born. Humans learn things every single day and as they get older they continue to learn. There are many different techniques of learning. People have their own way of grasping a certain skill. I guess they adapt their type of technique when they are little and they continue using it. These techniques came from a guy named Howard Gardener who wrote a book called " Frames of Mind". He basically shoes that people learn using one or several of these eight steps. All humans need to use at least one of the techniques to learn. You don't even think about it when you use them, you just naturally use it. People either learn fast or they learn slow.I think that i work better when i am alone because, i don't have group members to distract me and i don't have to force or annoy anyone to do their part of the work. For me it depends what the topic is for example if it's math then maybe i have to hear the technique more than once and in other subjects i have don't really have to hear it more than once.

The musical learner uses rhythm to learn. The rhythm helps them better concentrate. The musical learner likes to hum or sometimes sing, respond to music and often listen to music as well. They are good at remembering songs or tunes,keeping time, and picking up sounds. They learn best by music or rhythm.

The visual and spatial intelligence learner likes to visualize things in order for them to better learner. They tend to like drawing and creating things. They also tend to daydream and watch movies. They are good at sensing changes and reading maps or charts. They learn best by dreaming, working with colors and pictures.

The bodily and kinesthetic learner uses body movements to solve their problems.These people like to move around, touch and talk, and use their body language. They are good at art and they are also good at physical activities.

The interpersonal learner use their social skills and their communication skills. They are most likely to understand people.These types of learners like to have alot of friends, talk to people, and join many groups. They are good at communicating, organizing, and leading others. They learn best by sharing with other people, relating, and cooperating.

The naturalist intelligence learner are able to make connections to the world an also the environment. These type of learners like to be outdoors, be with animals and plants, and collect natural objects. They are good at using sensory skills, an also categorizing things. They learn best by being outside, using the observations, and senses.

The linguistic learner use the new information they know and the old information they already know about that topic to learn. These learners like to read, write and tell stories. They are good at basically memorizing things. They learn best by saying, hearing, and seeing words.

The logical and mathematical learner looks for reason and patterns. They like to go through experiences, work with numbers, ask questions, and explore things. They are good at math, problem solving, and logic. They learn best by classifying, using patterns and relationships.

Everybody has different learning techniques. My technique before i began learning about the multiple intelligences is the same as it was before. Before, when I wrote I didn't really observe the type of style I learned. Now, that I found out about the multiple intelligences I find ,myself to be a strong learner when it comes to dealing with people. I'm strongest in the technique of Interpersonal intelligence and the weakest in logical. In the intrapersonal learning technique people use their social skills and communication skills with others. I have lots of friends , enjoy talking to people, and like to join groups.In other words saying that get along with people well. They are good at solving conflicts and and manipulating people. These characteristics are part of my personality.The logical learner looks at patterns and reasoning.The logical thinkers like to ask questions and work with numbers. They are good at logic.

In a diagram the results were shown that males are better at interpersonal and intrapersonal learning techniques then women are.The results show that women are more of a kinaesthetic learner and linguistic learner. In my class results majority of the people that took the test were interpersonal and kinaesthetic. Majority of the people weren't good in logical and linguistic techniques. I think that several people learn based on their environment and the technique that they were taught. In the class results the class has a stronger result in the intrapersonal category's. The class is weak in naturalistic, visual, and musical. The result with my self-assessment are:Rhythmic (6), Interpersonal (6), Linguistic(4), kinesthetic (4), mathematical (3), Spatial (3), Intrapersonal (3), and Naturalistic ( 3).

There are many similarities and differences between the self- assessment and online test. Some similarities are logical and mathematical are both low percentages. Another similarity is the percentage for interpersonal is high. Some of the differences are on the self-assessment each multiple intelligences are out of 10 and on the online test it's out of 25. Another difference is they had different questions and statements. They are similar and different because, i could have answered the questions based on the learning skills now or in the past. The similarities between the population and my results are women are strong in the intrapersonal category, and weak in the logical category. We are evenly smart in the kinaesthetic category.

In a conclusion people in the world have many different ways of learning. It depends if they are a slow learner or a fast learner. I think it is based on how you were taught in the previous years because, if you were taught slow then you might adapt that technique of learning slow. If you learn fast then you might adapt that technique of learning fast. It also depends if you are a visual learner or if you need words to learn. Some people learn better by remembering the rhythm of things and they make up their own songs so, they are able to learn

intelligence

Intelligence is what you use when you do not know what to do” – Jean Piaget.

Meaning and Definition:

Human being is considered to be the most intelligent animal in this world. He is capable of controlling all other beings and many other things in this world.

Intelligence has a very important role in day- to-day activities of the individual.

The word intelligence has been derived from a Latin verb ‘intellegere’ means to understand.

What is intelligence? There are many answers for this question. The concept of intelligence has been understood by psychologists in different ways. Therefore, there are a number of definitions. The following are some of the important definitions:

Alfred Binet:

Intelligence is something which sensory acuity tests or reaction time experiments measure.

Spencer:

Intelligence is the capacity of the organism to adjust itself to an increasingly complex environment.

Terman:

Intelligence is the ability to carry on abstract thinking.

Munn:

It is the capacity for flexible adjustment.

Goddard:

Intelligence is the degree of availability of one’s experiences for the solution of immediate problems and the anticipation of the future ones.

Spearman:

Intelligence is the capacity for constructive thinking, which involves a discovery of appropriate qualities and relations of the ideas, that are before us and bringing in of other relevant ideas.

All these definitions define intelligence in their own way, but they are incomplete, because they give incomplete picture. In view of this problem, many psychologists have accepted a definition by Wechsler. David Wechsler (1944) who devised the intelligence tests for children as well as adults tried to provide a somewhat comprehensive definition:

“Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to think rationally, to act purposefully and to deal effectively with his environment”.

This definition includes three important processes, viz., to act purposefully means, to act in a determined way without any ambiguity, to think appropriately in a rational way without any prejudices and to deal effectively with the environment or to adjust in a proper way with the environment.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ):

As said above every individual will possess some amount of intelligence. We may be able to say whether the individual is less intelligent or more intelligent on the basis of his performance in activities. But to know the exact quantity of intelligence possessed by an individual, administration of an intelligence test is essential.

When a test is administered we get a score which may be converted into Mental Age (M A), the concept developed by Alfred Binet. This is an index of his mental ability. But this score does not give us the quantitative measure of his mental ability or intelligence.

Hence, in order to know a quantitative measure, a German psychologist by name William Stern proposed a formula, i.e. MA/CA x 100.

The output we get out of this formula was called as Intelligence Quotient (IQ) by Stern, which is the index of the quantity of intelligence possessed by the person. The Chronological Age (CA) will be the actual or real age of the person.

The resultant product of MA divided by CA may be in decimal point, which does not give a clear picture. Hence, in order to overcome this problem of decimal points, Stern suggested that the product be multiplied by 100. This product will be supposed to be the quantity of intelligence possessed by the individual.

Binet and other psychologists had a firm belief that the IQ remains constant and it will not change though the individual grows chronologically. They believed that the growth of intelligence will be ceased by 16th year in almost all individuals.

Hence, they restricted CA to 16 years-irrespective of the age of individuals after 16 years. That is why the actual CA will be considered if the age is below 16 years while calculating IQ. But it will be taken as only 16, even if the age of the individual exceeds 16 years.

Examples: IQ=MA/CA× 100

= 10/10×100=100

= 12/10×100=120

= 8/10×100=80

aim and objectives of teaching science

Aims

                    The aims of the teaching and study of sciences are to encourage and enable students to:

• develop inquiring minds and curiosity about science and the natural world
• acquire knowledge, conceptual understanding and skills to solve problems and make informed decisions in scientific and other contexts
• develop skills of scientific inquiry to design and carry out scientific investigations and evaluate scientific evidence to draw conclusions
• communicate scientific ideas, arguments and practical experiences accurately in a variety of ways
• think analytically, critically and creatively to solve problems, judge arguments and make decisions in scientific and other contexts
• appreciate the benefits and limitations of science and its application in technological developments
• understand the international nature of science and the interdependence of science, technology and society, including the benefits, limitations and implications imposed by social, economic, political, environmental, cultural and ethical factors
• demonstrate attitudes and develop values of honesty and respect for themselves, others, and their shared environment.

Objectives

              
The objectives of sciences listed below are final objectives and they describe what students should be able to do by the end of the course. These objectives have a direct correspondence with the final assessment criteria, A–F
 

A One world

This objective refers to enabling students to understand the interdependence between science and society. Students should be aware of the global dimension of science, as a universal activity with consequences for our lives and subject to social, economic, political, environmental, cultural and ethical factors.

At the end of the course, and within local and global contexts, students should be able to:

• describe and discuss ways in which science is applied and used to solve local and global problems
• describe and evaluate the benefits and limitations of science and scientific applications as well as their effect on life and society
• discuss how science and technology are interdependent and assist each other in the development of knowledge and technological applications
• discuss how science and its applications interact with social, economic, political, environmental, cultural and ethical factors.

B Communication in science

This objective refers to enabling students to develop their communication skills in science. Students should be able to understand scientific information, such as data, ideas, arguments and investigations, and communicate it using appropriate scientific language in a variety of communication modes and formats as appropriate.

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

• communicate scientific information using a range of scientific language
• communicate scientific information using appropriate modes of communication
• present scientific information in a variety of formats, acknowledging sources as appropriate
• demonstrate honesty when handling data and information, a

  acknowledging sources as appropriate use where appropriate a range of information and communication technology applications to access, process and communicate scientific information.   C Knowledge and understanding of science This objective refers to enabling students to understand the main ideas and concepts of science and to apply them to solve problems in familiar and unfamiliar situations. Students are expected to develop critical and reflective thinking and judge the credibility of scientific information when this is presented to them. At the end of the course, students should be able to: recognize and recall scientific information explain and apply scientific information to solve problems in familiar and unfamiliar situations analyse scientific information by identifying components, relationships and patterns, both in experimental data and ideas discuss and evaluate scientific information from different sources (Internet, newspaper articles, television, scientific texts and publications) and assess its credibility. D Scientific inquiry This objective refers to enabling students to develop scientific inquiry skills to design and carry out scientific investigations. At the end of the course, students should be able to: define the problem or research question to be tested by a scientific investigation formulate a hypothesis and explain it using logical scientific reasoning design scientific investigations that include variables and controls, material/equipment needed, a method to be followed, data to be collected and suggestions for its analysis evaluate the method, commenting on its reliability and/or validity suggest improvements to the method.   E Processing data This objective refers to enabling students to record, organize and process data. Students should be able to collect and transform data by numerical calculations into diagrammatic form. Students should be able to analyse and interpret data and explain appropriate conclusions. At the end of the course, students should be able to: collect and record data using appropriate units of measurement organize and transform data into numerical and diagrammatic forms, including mathematical calculations and visual representation (tables, graphs and charts) present data in a variety of ways using appropriate communication modes and conventions (units of measurement) analyse and interpret data by identifying trends, patterns and relationships draw conclusions supported by scientific explanations and a reasoned interpretation of the analysis of the data.   F Attitudes in science This objective goes beyond science and refers to encouraging attitudes and dispositions that will contribute to students’ development as caring and responsible individuals and members of society. This objective is set in the context of the science class but will pervade other subjects and life outside school. It includes notions of safety and responsibility when working in science as well as respect for and collaboration with others and their shared environment. During the course, students should: carry out scientific investigations using materials and techniques safely and skillfully work effectively as members of a team, collaborating, acknowledging and supporting others as well as ensuring a safe working environment show respect for themselves and others, and deal responsibly with the living and non-living environment ☺

Modern agricultural practices

Modern agriculture is a term used to describe the wide type of production practices employed by American farmers. It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected variety of a single crop, technologically advanced equipment and lots of energy subsidies in the form of irrigation water,fertilizers and pestisides.

Communication technology

Communication is very important for the human beings. It really regulates and shapes all human behaviour. Communication is the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop. It is good to have an understanding of communication in its wider sense. It is the interchange of thoughts or ideas. It is viewed as the transmission of information, consisting of discriminative stimuli, from a source to recipient. In everyday life, the communication is a system through which the messages are sent, and feedback received. Communication is the transfer of information from the sender to the receiver in the manner that the transferred information is being understood by both the participants. According to Brown, “Communication is a process of transmitting ideas or thoughts from one person to another for the purpose of creating an understanding in the thinking of the person receiving communication”

What is communication?

The word communication is derived from the Latin noun communis and the Latin verb communicare that means to make common.  This word is much known to the contemporary world. It is an all encompassing word which includes the multitude of experiences, actions and events. Individuals and non business organisations can also indulge in mass communication to build an image in the masses. According to Kelly, Communication is a field of knowledge dealing with the systematic application of symbols to acquire common information regarding an object or event.According to Luther, It is the transmission of commonly meaningful information. It is a process that involves the exchange of behaviours.The following points show the different purposes for a communication, and describe the way in which the communication differs based on its purpose.

• To inform the public regarding the affairs concerned to them.
• To convey the messages to the people those are required.
• To persuade the human beings for certain activities.
• To request the people to get something done.
• To warn the public regarding some nuisance that has got consequences.

Scope of communication

Communication is important both for an individual and also for the society. A person’s need for communication is as strong as the basic needs of human beings. A communication should always clearly identify the subject scope of the communication. The subject scope is a specification of the information covered by the communication. It has become a basic for the social existence and the feeling of commonality and togetherness. So the existence of human being can be clearly elaborated in the development of the communicative system. The scope of communication can be evaluated and analysed from different point of views.

 The Social dimensions

Communication helps to ensure the social enlightenment of the people. It really plays a vital role in the determination of the social behaviour of the human being. It motivates the people according to their own interest and makes them aware of the hazards as well as beneficial things. It works as an instructor and means of transformation in the fast changing society. The different forms of communicative techniques entertain the society that they can be relaxed and prepared for the life struggles.

The educational dimensions

Communication system is the part and parcel in educating the people. In the past centuries where there were no much facilities also the people could use different techniques of communication for the educational purpose. The various tools that we use in mass communication work as instructors to the people who are in search of knowledge. The educational objectives of modern communication system are increasing day by day.

Organisational dimensions

Communication has a vital role in the organisational structure of a system for the smooth functioning. All the three levels of management- strategic, tactical, and operational- depend on the transfer of messages done through the communicative techniques. The communicative skills of manager will really boost the employees in every respect. The main organisational functions are explained below.

1, It improves labour management relations by keeping both in contact with each other.

2 It monitors the performance of the employees at all the levels. It really helps to take corrective measures for the employees.

3 The effective communication will create a sense of belongingness and motivation among the workers.

4 It entertains the employees though on rare occasions through informal gatherings of the members in the company.

5 it helps the managers of a firm stop or check rumours and grapevine.

6 It uses propaganda, PR, and publicity for achieving the long term goals of the firm.

7 It informs the customers about the product and makes it familiar to them.

 Cultural dimensions

Communication provides an opportunity for the promotion and preservation of culture and traditions. It makes the people fulfil their creative urges. The cultural settings of a particular society can be known to the public through communication. Communication helps to spread the cultures into different areas. The concept of inculturation is developed in the postmodern context of communication.

Entertainment dimensions

  To break the routine life and divert our attention from the stressful life we lead today, entertainment is an essential part of everyday life. Communication opens a wide possibility of entertainment to the people. It begins from the interpersonal communication to the vast ocean of mass communication. The scope of films, drama, music, comedy etc is really wide in the entertaining aspect of it.  

Integrative dimensions

Communication is the one which connect people from different parts of the world. It develops integration and tolerance towards each other. The different cultures are merged together through the medium of communication. It integrates different people from the different background of the world. It works as a source of persuasion. The well functioning of the society depends on the integrating element of communication.  

Conclusion

Communication of message takes place through different medium. The main functions of communication are information entertainment and education. Communication means transferring messages from one to another through any medium. So the scope of communication is never ending. The communication will be the part of society as long as it exists. But the possibilities of communication will develop in the course of time since man is curious being. So we shall look for the latest communicative techniques.

emerging branches of Science

Bio Technology

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, more so when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. It is also used often to refer to genetic engineering technology.

Before the 70s, the term was mostly used in the food processing and agriculture industries. Later it began to be used by the Western scientific establishment to describe laboratory-based techniques involved in biological research, like recombinant DNA or tissue culture-based processes etc. Biotechnology is a mix of many disciplines like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, and embryology and cell biology. These are again linked to practical disciplines like chemical engineering, information technology, and bio robotics.

The cultivation of plants was perhaps the earliest biotechnological activity. Through this, farmers could select the most suitable and highest-yield crops to produce enough food. Other uses of biotechnology were needed when crops and fields became bigger and harder to maintain. Certain organisms and organism by­products were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and kill pessts

Uses

Biotechnology has vast potential for use in Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Medicine, Food Industry, Chemical Industry, Pollution Control and Environment.

(I) AGRICULTURE

The applications of biotechnology to agriculture are vast. The following activities will help to ensure sustain development in agriculture.

(a) Genetic engineering:

Crop plants like wheal maize, corn, cotton, potato etc. can be developed endowed with extra genes for disease and pest resistance and high yielding through genetic engineering.

(b) Hybrid seeds:

Hybrid seeds can be developed through biotechnology by union of two different genotypes which is superior to its parents under different agromic conditions. It is very successful in vegetable crops like brinjal, tomato, cucurbita etc.

(c) Tissue culture:

A major thrust area in biotechnological research in India is tissue culture. Various vegetative plants of agricultural, horticultural and plantation crops can be developed through micro propagation, clonal propagation, somatic embryogenesis. Plants supplied for "Social Forestry Programme" are developed by tissue culture. The main advantage of tissue culture application is that enumerable plants can be developed within a very short span.

(d) BiofertHizers:

Biotechnology plays a major role in developing biofertilisers.

A numbers of micro-organisms have ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and enhance the fertility of soil. Hence these micro-organisms are called biofertilisers" (bio = living and fertilisers). The best examples are (i) Blue green algae: such as Anabana, Anabamopsis, Nostoc and Tolypothrix etc.

(ii) Free living bacteria like Azotobacter, Mycobacterium, Closteriainum, Rhodospirillum, Bacillus, Escherichia etc.

(ii) Symbiotic bacteria, like Rhizobium Legumisorium for Legume Plants.

(iv) Higher plant:

an Azolla Blue Green alga is the biofertiliser of paddy. They fix nitrogen increasing 20-30% of production. Rlizobium biofertiliser when applied to field can fix 50-200 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year. Azotobacter and Azospirillium are Biofertilisers for cereal crops.

The biofertilisers are supplied to field in the form of inoculants and can improve soil structure, texture, water holding capacity, supply of nutrients and proliferation of useful soil micro organisms. These are cheaper in comparison to chemical fertilisers without any side effects.

Considering the advantages of biofertilisers, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, has launched a national project on development and use of biofertilisers in March 1993.

A National Biofertiliser Development Centre has been established at Ghaziabad along with six regional centres. Under this scheme, the innoculant of these organisms are found in. labeled packets for selling in market. Subsidy facilities are there to encourage farmers for using biofertilisers.

(e) Bio-insecticides and bio-pesticides:

Biotechnology has reduced the use of pesticides and insecticides by developing pests and insect’s resistance varieties of crop plants and biocontrol agents.

(II) ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Biotechnological applications in the fields of animal husbandry include production of superior breeds through cell fusions or hybridoma technology, improving health by developing safe and efficient vaccines for infectious diseases, embryo transfer, animal cell culture etc.

In the field of fisheries, biotechnology contributes development of feed of fish and prawn larvae, production of fish growth hormones by DNA technology, enhancement of nutritive value of fish and prawns through gene technologies, increasing production of fisheries through hormone technologies etc.

Artificial insemination acts as a powerful device to produce desired type of animal with increased potential. Calves can be produced from frozen and preserved cattle embryos. Now, it is possible to develop an exact copy of mother animal through Chiming Technology. Without any aid from its male counterpart, an Ireland ewe, Dolly is developed through cloning recently from her mother.

(III) HUMAN HEALTH

The developments of human insulin through microbes and human growth hormone for treatment of dwarf sin have already been achieved. Researches are done for developing monoclonal antibodies for cancer and sexually transmitted diseases diagnosis, treatment of cancer and detection of tambour metastasis easy bone marrow transplantation methodology development of interferon’s, blood clotting factors and many more^

(IV) FOOD

In the field of food industry, biotechnology is mainly applied for increasing nutritive value of food, better preservation, enhancement of flavor and protein content and prevention due to spoilage of food. Mass cultivation of mushrooms and food algue spiraling are also encouraged through biotechnology as they have higher protein content.

(V) INDUSTRY

From production of biomass and biogas for energy to biosensors for environmental monitoring, biotechnology plays a crucial role in industry. It is employed in biodegradation of plastics and polymers, management of pesticides in environment, treatment of sewage and industrial effluents, using microbes for oil drilling, microbial application for bioleaching, degradation of solid waters, sewage treatment etc.

Production of biogas and liquid fuel like methane, ethane and from agriculture wastes through fermentation is a significant achievement.

Application of biotechnology is increasing day by day with its entry to the new and newer fields. Really, we can simply say that biotechnology has brought a great revolution to our present day life.

Nanotechnology is the engineering of tiny machines. This will be done inside personal Nano factories using techniques and tools being developed today to make advanced products. This will result in a manufacturing revolution. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter, probably the width of three or four atoms. A human hair is about 25,000 nanometers wide. So one can imagine how small these machines will be. Nanotechnology is sometimes called a general- purpose technology.

The reason is because, in its advanced form, it will have significant impact on almost all industries and all areas of society. It will help create better built, longer lasting, cleaner, safer, and smarter products for the home, for communications, for medicine, for transportation, for agriculture, and for industry in general.

To understand its implications, try to imagine a medical device that roams through the human body to find and destroy tiny clusters of cancerous cells before they can spread. Or a box the size of a sugar cube that holds the entire contents of a public library.

Or materials ten times lighter than steel that are ten times stronger. Nanotech will result in greatly improved efficiency in almost every aspect of life. It will have both commercial and military uses. It can be used to create powerful weapons and tools of surveillance. So it comes with benefits and risks.

Nanotechnology implies not just better products, but a much improved manufacturing process. With nanotech, building products becomes as cheap as the copying of files on a computer. This explains why it is sometimes seen as “the next industrial revolution”.

The power of nanotechnology will be contained in a personal Nano factory that can be placed on a countertop or desktop. It will have miniature chemical processors, computing, and robotics, with which it will produce a wide-range of items quickly, cleanly, and inexpensively. Products will be built directly from blueprints. Thus, high-quality products can be made

Nanotechnology Applications in:

Medicine

Researchers are developing customized nanoparticles the size of molecules that can deliver drugs directly to diseased cells in your body.  When it's perfected, this method should greatly reduce the damage treatment such as chemotherapy does to a patient's healthy cells. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Medicine page to see how nanotechnology is being used in medicine.

Electronics

Nanotechnology holds some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of electronics devices while we reduce their weight and power consumption.Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Electronics page to see how nanotechnology is being used in electronics.

Food

Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is grown to how it is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a difference not only in the taste of food, but also in food safety, and the health benefits that food delivers. Check out ourNanotechnology Applications in Food page for the details.

Fuel Cells

Nanotechnology is being used to reduce the cost of catalysts used in fuel cells to produce hydrogen ions from fuel such as methanol and to improve theefficiency of membranes used in fuel cells to separate hydrogen ions 


Bioinformatics 
Bio informatics is the application of computer technology to the management of biological information. Computers are used to gather, store, analyze and integrate biological and genetic information which can then be applied to gene-based drug discovery and development.

Bioinformatics is a multidisciplinary field and requires people from different working areas. It is the combination of biology and computer science and is a new emerging field that helps in collecting, linking, and manipulating different types of biological information to discover new biological insight. Before the emergence of bioinformatics, all scientists working in different biological fields, such as human science, ecological science and many other fields, feel a necessity of some tool that helps them to work together. They knew they are all interlinked and had important information for each other, but they did not know how to integrate. In such circumstances, bioinformatics emerges to help these scientists or researchers in fast research and leads to quick inventions by providing readily available information with the help of computer technology.

Scientist and researchers spend their whole life in inventing things for human benefits. After so many years of development, they have collected huge amount of valuable data from their experiments all over the world and still this collection is continue and will always continue for the better development of human being. Sometimes, they need to repeat the old research because either it is hard to obtain old data or they do not know whether it exist or not; this wastes their valuable time. Let us take an example of DNA identification. Every species or human beings have particular DNA strands that contain the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. By identifying DNA information one can trace generations’ links and can find the root of different disease. Earlier it was hard to manage this information. In order to collect and link DNA information from all over the world and to solve many medical complications, bioinformatics is a very helpful hand for them.

Information technology

Information technology (IT) is theapplication of computers and internet to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. IT is considered a subset ofinformation and communicationstechnology (ICT).

measurement of intelligence

All the individuals differ in mental traits is much as they do in physical features. Whatever the conception of intelligence, all the psychologists and educators and even common people have believed since ancient times that there are various levels of intelligence some individuals are more intelligent than the others.

We come across some men who are giant intellects and at the same time there are some unfortunate people who are devoid of intelligence and cannot count up to ten even after full maturity. Between the genius and the idiot there lie all grades of intelligence both above average and below average.

With the advent of the 20th century there appeared a ray of hope in this connection. The educational authorities of Paris were very much disgusted with the leakage of students in Primary Schools due to their backwardness in studies. They wanted to know the basic causes of the backwardness.

The problem was entrusted to Alfred Binet, renowned medical practitioner interested in psychology. Alfred Binet worked on this hypothesis that children fail in studies due to poor intelligence.

Now he wished to ascertain if the intelligence of such children who had left school was really very low and that of those students who were doing well in schools was quite up to the mark.

There was no objective instrument of measurement of intelligence so far. There arose the need of some reliable objective tests. He endeavored to create the same in collaboration with Simon.

Both the psychologists prepared the first objective test of Intelligence in 1911. After laborious experiments and thorough research, Binet reached the conclusion that no single performance could measure this faculty adequately.

Therefore, he included many small problems concerning various situations in his test. He soon discovered that intelligence develops gradually with age. Therefore, many tests suitable for many grades of children according to their agewere constructed. They were tried on large samples and were standardized for various age levels.

Mental Age

Binet and Simon discovered that all children could not attempt the test standardized for their particular age level although a large number out of the same could do the same. For example, a nine-year old should be able to do the test standardized for his age group.

But sometimes a child could not do well in it. He was then offered the test for lower age groups. Suppose he succeeded in a doing well in the test prescribed for the seven year age group.

Then his mental age was declared to be seven years although his chronological age was nine years (chronological age is the actual age of the individual counted in days, months and years from the day of his birth). Similarly, a child of nine years could have mental age of nine, ten, eleven or more years.

All such individuals whose chronological age corresponded with their mental age were thought, to be normal or average in intelligence. All the individuals whose mental age was more than their chronological age were declared to be of superior intelligence while individuals with fewer mental ages were believed to be below normal in intelligence.

Intelligence Quotient

Terman gave a new concept of Intelligence Quotient to the world. Binet gave the mental age along with the chronological age of the individual. One could know the intelligence level of child by comparison of both the ages.

Terman went a step further. He multiplied the mental age with one hundred and divided the result by she chronological age. It gave intelligence Quotient (I.Q.)