Sunday 30 July 2017
Diagnostic test
Friday 28 July 2017
Achievement test
Achievement tests are used to assess the current knowledge and skills of the person being examined. Achievement tests include those administered to students in elementary or secondary schools and those administered to candidates for certification or licensure in a professional field. In elementary and secondary schools, content areas assessed by achievement tests include reading, language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. Licensure and certification examinations include test items that assess the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are required for professional practice. For example, a teacher licensure examination might include items on child development, curriculum, instructional methods, and assessment.
Thursday 27 July 2017
Green house effect
The greenhouse effect occurs when gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and CFCs trap heat in the atmosphere by acting as a pane of glass in a car. The glass lets the sunlight in to make heat, but when the heat tries to get out the gases absorb the heat. Holding this heat in causes heat waves, droughts, and climate changes which could alter our way of living.
The main gases that cause the greenhouse effect are water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane, which comes mainly from animal manure. Other gases like nitrogen oxide and chloroflurocarbons, man made gases, get caught in the atmosphere as well. The decay of animals and respiration are two main natural sources of carbon dioxide.
Tuesday 25 July 2017
Global warming
Global warming is the average temperature of Earth has increases since 1950 until now the temperature continuing increasing. Global warming can also refers to climate change that causes an increase in the average of temperature. However global warming are causes by natural events and human that are believed to be contribute to increase in average temperatures.
Causes of Global Warming
Global warming is a serious issue and is not a single issue but a number of environmental issues. Global warming is a rise in the surface temperature of the earth that has changed various life forms on the earth. The issues that cause global warming are divided into two categories include "natural" and "human influences" of global warming.
Natural Causes of Global Warming
The climate has continuously changing for centuries. The global warming happens because the natural rotation of the sun that changes the intensity of sunlight and moving closer to the earth.
Another cause of global warming is greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases are carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide it trap the solar heats rays and prevent it from escaping from the surface of the earth. This has cause the temperature of the earth increase.
Volcanic eruptions are another issue that causes global warming. For instance, a single volcanic eruption will release amount of carbon dioxide and ash to the atmosphere. Once carbon dioxide increase, the temperature of earth increase and greenhouse trap the solar radiations in the earth.
Finally, methane is another issue that causes global warming. Methane is also a greenhouse gas. Methane is more effective in trapping heat in the atmosphere that carbon dioxide by 20 times. Usually methane gas can release from many areas. For instance, it can be from cattle, landfill, natural gas, petroleum systems, coal mining, mobile explosion, or industrial waste process.
Human Influences on Global Warming
Human influence has been a very serious issue now because human do not take care the earth. Human that cause global warming are more than natural causes global warming. The earth has been changing for many years until now it is still changing because of modern lifestyle of human. Human activities include industrial production, burning fossil fuel, mining, cattle rearing or deforestation.
First issue is industrial revolution. Industrial have been using fossil fuels for power machines. Everything that we use is involved in fossil fuel. For example, when we buy a mobile phone, the process of making mobile phone have involve machines and machines uses fossil fuels, during the process carbon dioxide is releasing to the atmosphere. Besides industrial, transportation such as cars is also releasing carbon dioxide from exhaust.
Another issue is mining. During the process of mining, the methane will trap below the earth. Besides, rearing cattle will also cause methane because cattle released the form of manure. However, cattle is important because it make the latter equally responsible for the occurrence of global warming
Next is the most common issue that is deforestation. Deforestation is a human influence because human have been cutting down trees to produce papers, wood, build houses or more. If human continuing deforestation, carbon dioxide will concentrate in the atmosphere because trees can absorb carbon dioxide from atmosphere. Besides, human also release carbon dioxide when breathe. Therefore the amounts of millions of people breath have release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. If human continue deforestation, human breathing that release carbon dioxide will stay at the atmosphere.
The Effect of Global Warming
The greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for many years since hundreds years ago. However, the effect that global warming will cause on earth are extremely serious. There are many effects that will happen in the future if global warming continues. That includes polar ice caps melting, economic consequences, warmer waters and more hurricanes, spread of diseases and earthquake
First effect is polar ice caps melting. As the temperature increase, the ice at the North Pole will melt. Once the ice melt the first effect will be raise on sea levels because the melting glaciers become oceans. According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center "if the ice melted today the seas would rise about 230 feet". It affects many low lying areas such as the Netherlands. In future, the Netherlands will be cover by water once the North Pole is melted. However, it is not going to happen so fast but the sea level will continue rise.
Another effect is the species loss of habitat. Species that include polar bears and tropical frogs will be extinct due to climate change. Besides, various birds will migrate to other places because animals are not like humans. They cannot adapt the habitat that changes their living or temperature.
Next effect is more hurricanes will occur and economic consequences still affect as well. Hurricane causes damage to houses and government need to spend billions of dollars in damage and people need places to stay or have been killed. Once a disaster happens many people have died and diseases happen. Diseases are more serious because it can spread to other people very fast and more people will get the disease and the disease maybe come more serious because of different weather.
Solution to Stop Global Warming
Now there are solutions that we can stop global warming. However we human and governments need to move forward to implement the global warming solutions. To reduce global warming we can do to reduce the contribution of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Therefore, the solutions that we can reduce global warming are reducing gasoline, electricity and our activities that cause global warming.
To reduce gasoline mean we have a choice to choose a hybrid car that reduce using gasoline. Besides, petrol price are increasing. If a person everyday drives to work they need to pump petrol after 3 days and causes carbon dioxide. Another way to reduce gasoline is take public transport or carpool to work. It can help reduce carbon dioxide and save cost.
Another way to reduce global warming is recycle. Recycle can reduce garbage by reusing plastic bags, bottles, papers or glass. For instance, when we buy foods, we can use our own containers instead of plastic bags. Another example is after finish drinking the water from the bottle; we can reuse it or use our own bottle. If all this is being reuse, human can reduce deforestation and help save environment. Besides, turn off electricity if unused. It can save thousands of carbon dioxide and buy product that have energy saving because it saves cost and save environment.
Finally, human should stop open burning such as burning dry leafs or burning garbage. It will release carbon dioxide and toxic if burning garbage with plastic. Besides, government should reduce deforestation because the earth temperatures are increasing. Trees will help to improve the temperature on earth.
Sunday 23 July 2017
Importance of time management
“ Time management is the act or process of planning and exercising conscious control over the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially to increase effectiveness, efficiency or productivity “.
Time management is an essential component in our daily lives. It helps us to keep track of the time we spend on every activity. It helps to prioritize and give importance to jobs according to their terms. Tracking our activities is important to categorize 24 hours of our day. Time lost is definitely not retrieved. Hence we should make sure that we use our time effectively.
There are various methods in which we can manage our time. A common method utilized is making a check list or a time table. The “things to do” list helps to complete our tasks within the allotted time and moving on to the next one. The time table stresses to finish an activity within the given time. Time management becomes important for students as well as professionals.


Time management is an essential component in our daily lives. It helps us to keep track of the time we spend on every activity. It helps to prioritize and give importance to jobs according to their terms. Tracking our activities is important to categorize 24 hours of our day. Time lost is definitely not retrieved. Hence we should make sure that we use our time effectively.
There are various methods in which we can manage our time. A common method utilized is making a check list or a time table. The “things to do” list helps to complete our tasks within the allotted time and moving on to the next one. The time table stresses to finish an activity within the given time. Time management becomes important for students as well as professionals.


Friday 21 July 2017
Role of head master in school
The role of the principal covers many different areas including leadership, teacher evaluation, student discipline, and many others. Being an effective principal is hard work and is also time-consuming. A good principal is balanced within all their roles and works hard to ensure that that they are doing what they feel is best for all constituents involved. Time is a major limiting factor for every principal. A principal must become efficient at practices such as prioritizing, scheduling, and organization.
Role as a School leader
A school principal is the primary leader in a school building. A good leader always leads by example. A principal should be positive, enthusiastic, have their hand in the day to day activities of the school, and listen to what their constituents are saying. An effective leader is available to teachers, staff members, parents, students, and community members. Good leaders stay calm in difficult situations, thinks before they act, and puts the needs of the school before themselves. An effective leader steps up to fill in holes as needed, even if it isn’t a part of their daily routine.
nsure that that they are doing what they feel is best for all constituents involved. Time is a major limiting factor for every principal. A principal must become efficient at practices such as prioritizing, scheduling, and organization

Role in Student Discipline
A large part of any school principal’s job is to handle student discipline. The first step of having effective student discipline is to make sure that your teachers know what you are expecting when it comes to student discipline. Once they understand how you want them to handle it, then your job becomes easier. The discipline issues you deal will mostly come from teacher referrals. There are times that this can take a large part of the day.
A good principal will listen to all sides of an issue without jumping to conclusions collecting as much evidence as you can. A principal role in student discipline is much like that of a judge and a jury. You decide whether the student is guilty of a disciplinary infraction and what penalty should be enforced. An effective principal always documents discipline issues, makes fair decisions, and informs parents whenorganization
Role as a Teacher Evaluator
Most principals also are responsible for evaluating their teachers’ performance following district and state guidelines. An effective school has to have effective teachers and the teacher evaluation process is in place to make sure that the teachers in your building are effective. Evaluations should be fair and well documented pointed out both strengths and weaknesses.
Spend as much quality time in your classrooms as possible. Gather information each time you visit, even if it is just for a few minutes. Doing this allows the evaluator to have a larger collection of evidence of what actually goes on in a classroom, than a principal who has had minimal visits to a classroom. A good evaluator always lets their teachers know what their expectations are and then offers suggestions for improvement if those expectations are not being met. More »
Role in Developing, Implementing, and Evaluating Programs
Developing, implementing, and evaluating the programs within your school is another large part of a school principal’s role. A principal should always be looking for ways to improve the student experience at school. Developing effective programs that cover a variety of areas is one way to ensure this. It is acceptable to look at other schools in your area and to implement those programs within your own school that have proved to be effective elsewhere. Programs within your school should be evaluated every year and tweaked as necessary. If your reading program has become stale and your students are not showing much growth, then it may be necessary to review the program and make some changes to improve the school

Role in Reviewing Policies and Procedures
An individual school’s governing document is their student handbook. A principal should have their stamp on the handbook. A principal should review, remove, rewrite, or write policies and procedures every year as needed. Having an effective student handbook can improve the quality of education your students receive. It can also make a principal’s job a little easier. The principal’s role is to make sure students, teachers, and parents know what these policies and procedures are and to hold each individual accountable
Role in Schedule Setting
Creating schedules every year can be a daunting task. It can take some time to get everything to fall into its proper place. There are many different schedules in which a principal may be required to create including a bell schedule, duty schedule, computer lab schedule, library schedule, etc. Cross checking each of those schedules to ensure that you are not putting too much on any one person at once can be difficult.
With all the scheduling you have to do, it is almost impossible to make everyone happy with their schedules. For example some teachers like their plan first thing in the morning and others like them at the end of the day, but it is not impossible to accommodate all of them. It is probably best to create the schedule without trying to accommodate anyone. Also, be prepared to make adjustments to your schedules once the year begins. You need to be flexible because there are times that there are conflicts you did not foresee that need

Role in Hiring New Teachers
A vital part of any school administrator’s job is to hire teachers and staff that are going to do their job correctly. Hiring the wrong person can cause you huge headaches down the line while hiring the right person makes your job easier. The interview process is extremely important when hiring a new teacher. There are many factors that play into a person being a good candidate for you to hire. Those include teaching knowledge, personality, sincerity, excitement towards the profession, etc.
Once you have interviewed all your candidates, then it is equally important to call their references to get a feel for what the people who know them think they would do. After this process, you might narrow it down to your best 3-4 candidates and ask them to come back for a second interview. This time, ask the assistant principal, another teacher, or the superintendent to join you so that you can have another person’s feedback in the hiring process. Once you have completed this process, then rank your candidates accordingly and offer the person you think would be best for the position. Always be sure to let candidates you did not hire know that the position has been filled.
Role in Parent and Community Relations
Having good relations with parents and community members can benefit you in a variety of areas. If you have built trusting relationships with a parent whose child has a discipline issue, then it makes it easier to deal with the situation if the parent supports the school and your decision. The same holds true for the community. Building relationships with individuals and businesses in the community can help your school out tremendously. Benefits include donations, personal time, and overall positive support for your school. It is a vital part of any principal’s job to nurture their relationships with parents and community members.
Role in Delegating
Many leaders by nature have a hard time putting things in others hands without their direct stamp on it. However, there is so much that has to be done, that it is vital that a school principal delegates some duties as necessary. Having people around you that you trust implicitly will make this easier. An effective school principal simply does not have enough time to do everything that needs done by themselves. They must rely on other people to assist them with getting things done and trust that they are goinng to do job well
Role as a School leader
A school principal is the primary leader in a school building. A good leader always leads by example. A principal should be positive, enthusiastic, have their hand in the day to day activities of the school, and listen to what their constituents are saying. An effective leader is available to teachers, staff members, parents, students, and community members. Good leaders stay calm in difficult situations, thinks before they act, and puts the needs of the school before themselves. An effective leader steps up to fill in holes as needed, even if it isn’t a part of their daily routine.
nsure that that they are doing what they feel is best for all constituents involved. Time is a major limiting factor for every principal. A principal must become efficient at practices such as prioritizing, scheduling, and organization

Role in Student Discipline
A large part of any school principal’s job is to handle student discipline. The first step of having effective student discipline is to make sure that your teachers know what you are expecting when it comes to student discipline. Once they understand how you want them to handle it, then your job becomes easier. The discipline issues you deal will mostly come from teacher referrals. There are times that this can take a large part of the day.
A good principal will listen to all sides of an issue without jumping to conclusions collecting as much evidence as you can. A principal role in student discipline is much like that of a judge and a jury. You decide whether the student is guilty of a disciplinary infraction and what penalty should be enforced. An effective principal always documents discipline issues, makes fair decisions, and informs parents whenorganization
Role as a Teacher Evaluator
Most principals also are responsible for evaluating their teachers’ performance following district and state guidelines. An effective school has to have effective teachers and the teacher evaluation process is in place to make sure that the teachers in your building are effective. Evaluations should be fair and well documented pointed out both strengths and weaknesses.
Spend as much quality time in your classrooms as possible. Gather information each time you visit, even if it is just for a few minutes. Doing this allows the evaluator to have a larger collection of evidence of what actually goes on in a classroom, than a principal who has had minimal visits to a classroom. A good evaluator always lets their teachers know what their expectations are and then offers suggestions for improvement if those expectations are not being met. More »
Role in Developing, Implementing, and Evaluating Programs
Developing, implementing, and evaluating the programs within your school is another large part of a school principal’s role. A principal should always be looking for ways to improve the student experience at school. Developing effective programs that cover a variety of areas is one way to ensure this. It is acceptable to look at other schools in your area and to implement those programs within your own school that have proved to be effective elsewhere. Programs within your school should be evaluated every year and tweaked as necessary. If your reading program has become stale and your students are not showing much growth, then it may be necessary to review the program and make some changes to improve the school

Role in Reviewing Policies and Procedures
An individual school’s governing document is their student handbook. A principal should have their stamp on the handbook. A principal should review, remove, rewrite, or write policies and procedures every year as needed. Having an effective student handbook can improve the quality of education your students receive. It can also make a principal’s job a little easier. The principal’s role is to make sure students, teachers, and parents know what these policies and procedures are and to hold each individual accountable
Role in Schedule Setting
Creating schedules every year can be a daunting task. It can take some time to get everything to fall into its proper place. There are many different schedules in which a principal may be required to create including a bell schedule, duty schedule, computer lab schedule, library schedule, etc. Cross checking each of those schedules to ensure that you are not putting too much on any one person at once can be difficult.
With all the scheduling you have to do, it is almost impossible to make everyone happy with their schedules. For example some teachers like their plan first thing in the morning and others like them at the end of the day, but it is not impossible to accommodate all of them. It is probably best to create the schedule without trying to accommodate anyone. Also, be prepared to make adjustments to your schedules once the year begins. You need to be flexible because there are times that there are conflicts you did not foresee that need

Role in Hiring New Teachers
A vital part of any school administrator’s job is to hire teachers and staff that are going to do their job correctly. Hiring the wrong person can cause you huge headaches down the line while hiring the right person makes your job easier. The interview process is extremely important when hiring a new teacher. There are many factors that play into a person being a good candidate for you to hire. Those include teaching knowledge, personality, sincerity, excitement towards the profession, etc.
Once you have interviewed all your candidates, then it is equally important to call their references to get a feel for what the people who know them think they would do. After this process, you might narrow it down to your best 3-4 candidates and ask them to come back for a second interview. This time, ask the assistant principal, another teacher, or the superintendent to join you so that you can have another person’s feedback in the hiring process. Once you have completed this process, then rank your candidates accordingly and offer the person you think would be best for the position. Always be sure to let candidates you did not hire know that the position has been filled.
Role in Parent and Community Relations
Having good relations with parents and community members can benefit you in a variety of areas. If you have built trusting relationships with a parent whose child has a discipline issue, then it makes it easier to deal with the situation if the parent supports the school and your decision. The same holds true for the community. Building relationships with individuals and businesses in the community can help your school out tremendously. Benefits include donations, personal time, and overall positive support for your school. It is a vital part of any principal’s job to nurture their relationships with parents and community members.
Role in Delegating
Many leaders by nature have a hard time putting things in others hands without their direct stamp on it. However, there is so much that has to be done, that it is vital that a school principal delegates some duties as necessary. Having people around you that you trust implicitly will make this easier. An effective school principal simply does not have enough time to do everything that needs done by themselves. They must rely on other people to assist them with getting things done and trust that they are goinng to do job well
Wednesday 19 July 2017
Health education

Health education is any combination of learning experiences designed to help individuals and communities improve their health, by increasing their knowledge or influencing their attitudes.
Health' is a state of complete physical, social and mental well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health is thus a level of functional efficiency of living beings and a general condition of a persons mind, body and spirit, meaning it is free from illness, injury and pain. It is a resource of everyday life and a positive concept emphasizing physical capabilities.
Good health is a secret of every happy man. There is an old saying, 'Health is Wealth'. Staying healthy for children is vital for proper growth and development of mind and body as they need to focus in the class and fully participate in the activities on the field. Parents must take their children for medical check-up and learn from experts about their development in terms of height and weight, as it has a huge impact on their overall performance and efficiency. If you are strong and healthy, you can be a shining example to others and teach them how to achieve vibrant health.
Good health is a matter of great concern, to maintain it, healthy living and a disciplined life is a must. One of the best ways is to drink plenty of water as it reduces the risk of infection, keeps your skin healthy, reduces the risk of heart attack, burns body fat and regulates our body temperature. We should sleep well as it relaxes our body and reduces stress. We need to have a balanced diet and go for long, brisk walks. Our motto should be to keep our body clean in order to remain healthy. We must laugh more as laughing is a therapy and a secret of good health. The government should include integrated health programs into their public policies and control specific health problems
Monday 17 July 2017
Disaster management
Disaster refers to the mishap, calamity or the grave occurrence from the natural or man-made reasons which can’t be stopped or tackled immediately by the affected community. Earthquakes, cyclones, droughts, floods etc are some of the natural disasters resulting into huge loss of lives and properties. The direct or indirect impacts of disasters, either natural or man-made are colossal damage, destruction and death.
The disaster management is the discipline by which human beings continuously makes efforts to reduce the harm caused by the disasters. India has set up many departments and organizations for the same such as national disaster management authority (NDMA). But we are yet to achieve satisfactory progress with regard to timely management of disasters. This can be done by raising adequate awareness about the ways to cope with disasters and greater co-ordination between the centre and state agencies.

The disaster management is the discipline by which human beings continuously makes efforts to reduce the harm caused by the disasters. India has set up many departments and organizations for the same such as national disaster management authority (NDMA). But we are yet to achieve satisfactory progress with regard to timely management of disasters. This can be done by raising adequate awareness about the ways to cope with disasters and greater co-ordination between the centre and state agencies.

Wednesday 12 July 2017
education management

The School is a complex open social system. It provides a balance between scientific management and human relations approach. The system is extremely dynamic. In this system the structure is a key element in transforming inputs into outputs. The structure, also called the bureaucratic expectations, defines our role and responsibilities. It has been organized in such a way so as to fulfill the organization's goals (Hoy and Miskel 2004). This dissertation will be based primarily on the bureaucratic part which is a major issue in educational management.
"The world is flat", Friedman (2005) rightly said. We are witnessing the flattening of structures in all settings and at different levels. The Weberian model of bureaucracy is being questioned. The pyramidal shape structure is becoming irrelevant. Even the school setting has not been left apart. All schools do not follow the same structure; some have an enabling or productive structure whereas others still have a coercive or hindering structure (Hoy and Miskel 2004).
Schools are social organizations with set objectives together with their human, financial, material and physical resources (Dash and Dash 2008). Therefore, school management is a crucial and complex matter. The one responsible for managing these resources is usually centered on one person who is called the headmaster or principal or rector. He has the responsibility of both the internal and external management of the school. This situation no longer holds good. Reforms were necessary in different spheres, settings and levels in order to bring change and transformation in school management.
"School management is a cooperative human endeavor," as Dash and Dash (2008) rightly pointed out. For an effective school management, teachers, parents, students and even the community members have to cooperate with the head of school (Dash and Dash 2008). This is the description of the concept of decentralization in school management which has been the driving force of educational reforms in the 1990s. Many schools adopted this school-based reform in many developing countries (Ng and Chan 2008). School-based management then came to light. The Economic Note (2007) defined School-based management as "the systematic decentralization to the school level of authority and responsibility to make decisions on significant matters related to school operations within a centrally determined framework of goals, policies, curriculum, standards, and accountability." It ensures significant, systematic, and sustained change as well as improving outcomes for every students in whichever settings and contributing socially and economically to a country (Caldwell 2005).
Decentralization or school-based management varies from country to country and it can take different shapes (Economic Note 2007). One way of achieving this decentralization is through distributed leadership. Leadership is the new trend in education worldwide. It is crucial for all transformation and innovation (Spillane, Halverson and Diamond 2004). It is about empowering others as partners in leadership (Huber 2004). This concept was meant with the aim of de-loading the duties and responsibilities of the rector. Everyone now share the different responsibilities in managing the school.
School management is not a simple task even in a small country like Mauritius, with a population of about 110,000 secondary students and 200 secondary schools. The concept of school-based management has been implemented to some extent even in our local schools. As early as 'Future in our hands' by K. Jagatsing (1979), up to the recent 'Education and Human Resources Strategy Plan 2008-2020' report, stressed were laid on the concept of decentralization in school management. Our Honorable Minister of Education, Dr. V.K.Bunwaree, talked about the decentralization of school management in these terms : "While the School Development Plan is available in all institutions as an indication of the direction to follow, the Rector needs support and resources to make critical decisions on a day-to-day basis. These decisions may well relate to pedagogical matters as much as to disciplinary cases. Nevertheless, it is also vital to understand that a Head of School cannot do it alone. He/She will have to resort to some delegation of responsibility and especially know when and how to do it" (School Management Manual, 2009). New posts were created and distributed leadership is becoming more and more a reality.
1.1 Problem statement
The Mauritian education system is very hierarchical where all decisions are centralized on very few individuals. This rigid Weberian model of bureaucracy was inherited from our British colonial past. It had a quite coercive structure which is gradually being changed in an enabling one at all levels from pre-primary to tertiary education. This dissertation will consider the model which has been opted for by the Ministry of Education at secondary school level.
There are three types of secondary schools in Mauritius namely State Secondary Schools and State Colleges, Private Secondary Schools and Fee Paying Schools (Ministry of Education and Human Resources 2012). The Private secondary schools can be further classified into private aided and private un-aided schools. These schools are under the aegis of the Private Secondary School Authority (PSSA). Another classification of these schools is based upon their related confessions (PSSA 2012).
At secondary school level, all managerial activities are centered on the rector. He is the only one responsible for the smooth running of the school. In the decentralization process of school-based management, the government created some new posts sharing the complex responsibilities of the rector. These posts as well as the duties and responsibilities they are entrusted with, are not the same in state secondary schools and private secondary schools.
In Private secondary schools, we have the Head of Department HoD and the Section Leader posts that bring about the distributed leadership in the school-based management process. The HoD is mainly concern with academic issues of the school. Teachers are divided into various departments according to the subjects they teach. The head of department provide leadership to the department. He helps the rector in monitoring teaching and learning in his department (PSSA 2010).
The post of Section Leader is a rather new one which has been appointed in 2010 following the Pay Research Bureau recommendations of 2008. This post is exclusively found in Private secondary schools. It is mostly an administrative post. The section leader is responsible the rector in solving indiscipline issues absences, etc. He must assist the rector in planning, organizing and coordinating activities. Pastoral care is also under his responsibility. He is to assist the rector in conducting examinations, preparation and distribution of time-tables (PSSA 2010).
This dissertation will analyze to what extent are the heads of department and the section leaders helping the rector in school management. The relevance, effectiveness and efficiency of these posts in private secondary schools will be dealt in depth.
1.2 Aims and objectives
1.2.1 Aims
The aim of the study is to find out the efficiency, effectiveness and relevancy of distributed leadership in school-based management in private secondary schools in Mauritius with special reference to the role of section leaders and heads of department.
1.2.2 Objectives
To evaluate the impact of distributed leadership in private secondary schools.
To find out whether distributed leadership is considered as a solution to the various issues facing private secondary schools.
To measure the extent to which the posts of section leader and head of department have decrease the work load of the rector.
To evaluate the effectiveness of these posts in bringing flexibility in managing the schools.
To evaluate the improvement, if ever, in the relationship between teachers and rectors.
To find out the impact of these posts on the teachers and their duties.
To find out whether these posts are sources of motivation for teachers or not.
To compare the application of these two posts in schools with different settings and measure their respective efficiency, effectiveness and relevancy.
1.3 Research questions
According to the objectives of the study, the research questions have been formulated as follows:
(1) What is the impact of distributed leadership in secondary schools in general and in private secondary schools in particular?
(2) How is distributed leadership being applied in private secondary schools?
(3) Is distributed leadership the proper solution in solving issues facing these schools?
(4) How is the creation of the post of section leader and HoD decreasing the workload of the rector in these schools?
(5) Have these posts brought more flexibility in the school management?
(6) Has there been any improvement in teacher-rector relationship by the introduction of section leader and HoD?
(7) What is the impact of section leaders and Hods on the teachers and their responsibilities?
(8) Is the creation of these posts a motivation for teachers?
(9) What are the different responsibilities of section leaders and HoDs in different schools?
1.4 Flow of dissertation
Chapter One:
This chapter is about the introduction of the dissertation. It comprises of the background, problem statement, aims, objectives and research questions. Distributed leadership is introduced and explained in brief terms from an international to a local perspective with precisions on the posts of HoD and Section leader.
Chapter Two:
It is the literature review chapter where literatures from the world of education were selected and written down. Both the international and local perspective were taken into account. It starts with definitions and explanations of key terms such as leadership, management and administration in the education sector. Then the school structure and the major reforms in it were elucidated. Decentralization, School-based management and distributed leadership were explained together with their criticism. Teacher leadership was given also mentioned which included the HoD and other middle manager posts. Furthermore an overview of the Mauritian context with the application of distributed leadership in Mauritian schools was explained.
Chapter Three:
It is the methodology chapter. Two schools were selected namely the Aleemiah Forms I-VI Boys' College and the girls department of the Cosmopolitan College. The mix method was adopted to collect data. Interviews were carried out with rectors, HoDs and Section leaders. Two observations were carried out in both schools. Survey questionnaires were distributed to educators in both schools.
Chapter Four:
It is the result and discussion chapter where the data were thoroughly analyzed. SPSS were used to make bar-charts, pie-charts and cross-tabulations. The results obtained from observations and interviews were written and analyzed with relation to the literature review.
Chapter Five:
It is the conclusion and recommendation chapter. All the research questions were answered. The aims and objectives of the dissertation were reached. Some recommendations were made for a better distributed leadership in schools
Monday 10 July 2017
Self evaluation
Self-evaluation is a procedure to systematically observe, analyze and value your own professional action and its results in order to stabilize or improve it. This can take place on an individual or on an organizational level. To self-evaluate means that people explore and evaluate their own professional work.
Sunday 9 July 2017
Leadership
The Qualities Of A Good Leader
Introduction

Leaders have an important role within an organisation related to its success, productivity and the performance of the employees. The 'fundamental task of a leader is to build and maintain a high performing team' (Furnham, 2005, p.566). However, Yukl (2013, p.18) argues that there are numerous and diverse definitions concerning the concept of a leader as well as the term leadership, although a general consensus appears to suggest it involves a process of influencing and guiding relationships within an organisation . Guirdham (2002, p.15) emphasises the importance of leaders having good interpersonal and communication skills, which as Yukl suggest involves the ability to persuade others. Yukl (2013, p.18) further states there are additional factors that contribute to good leadership such as the situational context and the use of power. Another issue regarding the characteristics of leaders is that many theories and models have been based on Western perspectives (House and Aditya, 1997, p.409) and typically based on research with white males (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, CIPD, 2008, p.7). There is some cultural crossover in servant leadership, which according to Northouse (2013, p.219), was originally proposed by Greenleaf in the 1970s, and also has origins in ancient Eastern and Western philosophies; for example, it is deeply embedded in Arab-Islamic culture (Sarayrah, 2004, p.59). A further concern is raised by Mullins (2008, p.265) who states that determining who is a 'good leader' is a subjective judgement and cannot be based, for example, on financial performance alone. The aim of the following essay is to investigate whether certain characteristics are related to good leadership and which can be identified in theories and models of leadership such as trait theory, transformational and charismatic leadership as well as authentic and servant leadership. Finally, there will be a brief discussion regarding interpersonal characteristics such as emotional intelligence and communication skills.
Theories and Models of Leadership
Trait Theories
Trait theories of leadership proposed that successful leaders possessed distinctive traits or characteristics that differentiated them from unsuccessful leaders and subordinates. As Northouse (2013, p.7) mentions there are common phrases in use in society such as ' he was born to be a leader' or 'she is a natural leader' which suggest that people tend to think good leaders are born and not trained. The concept of leaders having certain characteristics dominated research prior to the Second World War. It was thought that individuals could be selected for leadership positions if they showed the appropriate characteristics or alternatively that traits could be taught to leaders (Furnham, 2005, p.571). Popular books, such as Stephen Covey's book, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, propose that certain traits or characteristics can be learned. Covey (2004, p.46) states that 'our character, basically, is a composite of our habits.' Covey continues saying that habits are consistent, can be learned or unlearned and express an individual's character and how effective or ineffective they are (Covey, 2004, p.46). Covey suggests that effective people are proactive, have a clarity regarding their life-goals, manage themselves, value and respect other people, are empathic and encourage positive teamwork (Covey, 2004, p.65). The seventh habit involves taking time to 'sharpen the saw' which Covey translates as meaning time to refresh physical, spiritual, psychological and socio-emotional dimensions of a person's character (Covey, 2004, pp.287-288).
A number of characteristics and traits related to good leaders have been identified; for example, Smith and Foti (1998, p.147) undertook a study investigating the characteristics of emergent leaders and found that the traits of dominance, intelligence and self-efficacy were significantly higher in emergent leaders than other individuals who were not classified as emergent leaders. According to Furnham (2005, p.572), good leaders usually possess characteristics such as persistence, innovation and a willingness to take responsibility for their actions. Yukl (2013, p.146) similarly identifies certain characteristics related to good leaders which include a high tolerance of stress, emotional maturity, personal integrity, motivation and self-confidence. However, Furnham (2005, p.574) suggests that although there are numerous traits, there appears to be little agreement regarding which characteristics contribute to a leader being effective.
According to Zaccaro, (2007, p.6) trait theories are not able to explain how leaders' characteristics adapt to different situations and contexts and thus a major criticism of trait theories is that they do not consider the wider context of culture, society or the interactions with the characteristics of subordinates (Zaccaro, 2007, p.7). Examining the characteristics of good leaders implies that leaders innately possess certain personality traits although it could be suggested that some good leaders can learn through experience (Bryman, Collinson, Grint, Jackson and Uhl-Bien, 2011, p.78). The notion that good leaders can learn skills through a dynamic learning experience is supported by other researchers; for example, Rodd (2006, p.13) proposes that practitioners within the Early Years profession can become leaders through 'demonstrating increasing competence' and by developing the personal skills necessary to become a leader. Daly and Byers (2004, p.7) suggest that good leaders will also ensure that employees have the opportunity for training and professional development which in turn may help them to become good leaders. Kolb (1984, p.25) similarly supports the idea of learning leadership skills through experience and suggests that learning involves a constant change of ideas, perspectives and opinions which are not fixed and thoughts are 'formed and reformed through experience' and 'continually modified by experience'. The importance of having a flexible approach is emphasised by Daly and Byers (2004, p.187) ensuring that the leader is adaptable and can implement new ideas or procedures when necessary. Even early theorists such as Taylor (1911, p.7) argued that good leaders are not born and required systematic training instead of being reliant on 'some unusual or extraordinary man'.
It is further argued by Zaccaro (2007, p.10) that because being a good leader is complex there is probably an interaction of the leader's characteristics as well as an interaction with the variables present in different situations and contexts. Theories such as Fiedler's contingency theory (Fiedler 1967, cited in Northouse, 2013, pp.123-125) were developed primarily with leaders in the military and focused on how compatible the characteristics and style of the leader were with a specific situation. Thus, 'effective leadership is contingent on matching a leader's style to the right setting (Northouse, 2013, p.123). A problem with both trait theories and contingency theories is that they appear to focus on the characteristics of the leader and do not consider the characteristics of, the interactions with, or the role of, subordinates. Contingency theory does not explain why some leaders are better in certain situations than other leaders and also how organisations deal with a mismatch between leaders and certain situations (Northouse, 2013, p.129).
Transactional and Transformational Leaders
Furnham (2005, p.588) suggests that transactional leadership can be defined as a contract between the leader and a worker where the leader achieves what they want by offering some sort of reward which is desired by the employee. There is typically a limited relationship between the leader as in certain situations (for example in the military) transactional leadership is necessary as certain actions need to be undertaken without subordinates questioning or debating issues (Bass and Bass, 2008, p.41; Bryman et al. 2011, p.55). Transactional leadership does not appear to be concerned with the characteristics of leaders and is more concerned with creating structures and systems which allow the sharing of information (Bryman et al. 2011, p.61). Transactional leadership depends on contingency reinforcement which means the subordinate understands that a reward will be received when performance goals are achieved (Bass and Riggio, 2006, p.8).
Transformational leadership developed from the foundations of transactional leadership with four further characteristics namely; charisma and idealised influence which indicates that the leader is admired, respected, and trusted; inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and consideration towards individual workers (Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson, 2003, p.208; McKenna, 2005, p.411). By showing an interest in the personal development of followers there can be a subsequent increase in performance and productivity as well as creativity and innovation subordinates can often be creative which can then have an impact on the competitive advantage of the company (Bass, et al 2003,p.208). Bass and Bass (2006, p.41) also suggest that transformational leaders usually believe and support the goals of the organisation and are able to articulate the goals to subordinates and engage their support and commitment. Other characteristics identified in transformational leaders is that they show consistent behaviour and tend to have a strong focus on integrity, ethical principles and values together with being flexible and able to adapt to change (Judge and Piccolo, 2004, p.755). McKenna (2005, p.408) states that transformational leaders have characteristics such as vision and are able to motivate and inspire subordinates to share their vision. As Sir John Harvey-Jones, MBE, who was the chairman of Imperial Chemical Industries from 1982 to 1987 and has recently helped failing business shown in a BBC television programme called Troubleshooter states:-
'The vision is absolutely key to getting your troops together. It has to be qualitative, daring and grab the imagination. The test of it should be how quickly people will latch on to where you are going……' (cited in Mullins, 2008, p.261).
The characteristics of transformational leaders are important in an organisation because they are viewed as a more effective leadership style than transactional leadership for example. Bass and Riggio (2008, p.10) suggest that many subordinates are very loyal to transformational leaders and are committed to the organisation so productivity increases and improves which Bass and Riggio (2008, p.10) suggest is one way of demonstrating the efficiency of the leader. The characteristics of transactional and transformational leaders are not mutually exclusive and there may be occasions when a leader has to show transactional characteristics as well as transformational characteristics. An example is cited by Bass and Bass (2008, p.51) which states that famous leaders such as John F. Kennedy and Abraham Lincoln displayed characteristics of both transactional and transformational leaders. Transactional leadership, for example, has been found to be more effective in a well-ordered, stable environment whereas transformational leadership is suitable in organisations that are changing rapidly such as in times of financial upheaval (McKenna, 2006, p.418).
Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders
As discussed previously, one characteristic of transformational leaders is charisma (Bass, et al. 2003, p.216) although there are some leaders who are characterised as being so charismatic that they are referred to as charismatic leaders. Chio (2006, p.24) defines charismatic leaders as having three additional, core characteristics which are an ability to predict future trends and be visionary; being a creative thinker, and showing empathy and empowering colleagues. According to House, 1977, (cited in McKenna, 2006, p.411) charismatic leaders can motivate subordinates to perform effectively without having to invoke their position of power; they have a vision and the ability to convince subordinates to support that vision. Further characteristics include determination, energy, self-confidence and ability; in addition they are not afraid to be unconventional (McKenna, 2006, p.411).
Although charismatic leaders are unusual and exceptional in the business world, Hellriegel and Slocum (2007, p.240) use as an example Richard Branson who demonstrates the characteristic of both a transformational and a charismatic leader. Branson is characterised as someone who is prepared to follow his instincts and take risks, venturing into new territories (Boje and Smith, 2010, p.308). Branson has a flair for being slightly eccentric and is not afraid of being unconventional which Choi, as discussed previously, describes as a characteristic of charismatic leadership. Branson makes a clear statement about his company, Virgin, as being 'different, colourful, iconoclastic and fun-loving' (Crainer and Dearlove, 2008, p.43). Branson's character appears to reflect the character of his company; for example, he appeared dressed as a Virgin bride and also abseiled down a skyscraper to promote his company (Business Pundit, 2011, n/p).
The CIPD (2008, p.8) report that there is some dislike for the 'celebrity-like focus' on so-called charismatic leaders. In the US a study investigated fifty-nine CEOs of Fortune 500 companies and investigated the link between charisma and performance over a ten year period and found there was no relationship (Tosi et al. 2004, cited in CIPD, 2008 p.8). A criticism made by Alvesson and Spicer (2010, p.9) claims that by endowing leaders with characteristics such as charisma, gives them a heroic and unselfish quality which enables them to persuade followers to pursue goals almost unquestioningly. Furthermore, Alvesson and Spicer (2010, p.64) maintain that some transformational leaders can be perceived as 'saint-like'. Chio (2006, p.37) claims that frequently the positive aspects of charismatic leadership are emphasised and dysfunctional characteristics, such as the abuse of power, are often minimised. Chio (2006, p.36) reports that there can be very strong emotional bonds between a charismatic leader and their subordinates and in certain situations individuals may 'sacrifice themselves for the sake of the group to maintain harmonious relationships with others' (Triandis, 1995, cited in Chio, 2006, p.36). Thus charismatic leaders can use their influence malignantly; for example, there have been reports of charismatic leaders of religious sects who are able to persuade followers to commit mass suicide.
The CIPD (2008, p.8) also report on the 'dark-side' of charisma and suggest that although some leaders may superficially appear charismatic they hide undesirable characteristics such as dishonesty and greed. By the time such characteristics are discovered the organisation and employees may have suffered irreparable harm. Research undertaken by Collins (2001, cited in CIPD, 2008, p.8) investigated common characteristics in US companies quoted on the Stock Exchange whose performance was 'outstanding'. The findings indicated that common characteristics included an unshakable belief in their company and also a 'deep personal humility'. These CEOs were not at all charismatic and appeared to be quite unassuming. Collins also noted that failing companies had a CEO 'with a gargantuan ego' causing the company to fail (Collins 2001, cited in CIPD, 2008, p.8).
Interpersonal Characteristics of Leaders.
Characteristics of Authentic Leaders
As discussed in the previous sections there have been concerns regarding unscrupulous leaders; for example, although they may appear to be charismatic they may in fact have 'exploitative' motives (Bass and Riggio, 2008, p.5). Consequently there is a desire for leaders who are genuine and authentic (Bass and Riggio, 2008, p.xii). There appears to be some parallels between authentic leaders and servant leaders although currently there is limited research in this area according to Northouse (2013, p.235). Servant leadership focuses on the empathic characteristics of a leader towards subordinates and nurturing each employee's talents and potential which is beneficial for the organisation (Northouse, 2013, p.233). Servant leadership proposes that leaders want to serve others and emphasises the altruistic characteristics of leaders who are focused on the needs of their subordinates (Greenleaf, 1977, cited in Northouse, 2013, p.219). The characteristic of the servant leader are numerous and the underlying principles involve the way in which the leader treats subordinates in terms of honesty and treating them fairly. A successful relationship between the servant leader and followers is a two-way process and followers must be accepting of the principles of empowerment and the opportunity to grow.
A characteristic of leaders which seems to be related to good leadership is emotional intelligence. Goleman (1998, p.317) defines emotional intelligence as 'the capacity for recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions in ourselves and in our relationships'. Emotional intelligence involves five key factors; self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills (Goleman, 1998, p.9). It is argued that emotional intelligence is of benefit to leaders as it contributes to an awareness of their own emotions and how to regulate them as well as recognising emotions in others and having the social skills necessary to deal with other people's emotions (Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee, 2001, n/p).
Guirdham (2002, p.545) suggests that there are certain qualities that followers look for in leaders and that a leader does not automatically gain the respect from subordinates. However, such qualities vary with different situations and the type of subordinates who are expected to follow. Gaining acceptance as a leader is also more difficult where there is prejudice concerning gender, race and ethnic group, and disability. Guirdham (2002, p.545) states that in general to be accepted by subordinates the characteristics of the leader need to include knowledge, competence, status, identification with the group, motivation, being proactive in promoting the group's goals and good communication skills. As Sir John Harvey says:-
'You only get a company going where you want it to by leadership by example and by honest and endless communication' (cited in Mullins 2008, p.261).
Communication appears to be a very important characteristic of a good leader together with interpersonal relationships which is also related to emotional intelligence as discussed previously. It has been found that directive, coherent and positive communication is an effective style for leaders (Guirdham, 2002, p.550). However, other characteristics are also necessary such as trust, the way in which leaders try to persuade or influence followers and the way in which subordinates are encouraged to participate in decision making.
Conclusion
It can be seen from the evidence presented that identifying the characteristics of a good manager is a complex task as there are many different traits or personality characteristics involved. Additionally characteristics cannot be identified in isolation and the situation or context must also be considered. Early research, for example trait theories, focused on the leader and did not consider the role or characteristics of the subordinates. This would appear to be relevant in contemporary society as employees are more empowered than they were in the past and are therefore less likely to blindly follow a leader. Transformational and charismatic theories of leadership identify many positive qualities in leaders; however, there is the issue identified by many researchers of deceitful leaders who can cause a company to collapse as in the case of Enron and other similar examples. The characteristics of a leader need to be genuine and authentic and the theoretical perspective of servant leadership emphasises the caring aspect of leaders towards their followers. Typically servant leaders are altruistic and are concerned about the well-being of others. There are a number of characteristics which appear to be more important than others although it is difficult to isolate only a few. However, one characteristic that does seem to be high on the list for good leaders is good communication and interpersonal skills (Guirdham, 2002, p.550
The Qualities Of A Good Leader
Introduction

Leaders have an important role within an organisation related to its success, productivity and the performance of the employees. The 'fundamental task of a leader is to build and maintain a high performing team' (Furnham, 2005, p.566). However, Yukl (2013, p.18) argues that there are numerous and diverse definitions concerning the concept of a leader as well as the term leadership, although a general consensus appears to suggest it involves a process of influencing and guiding relationships within an organisation . Guirdham (2002, p.15) emphasises the importance of leaders having good interpersonal and communication skills, which as Yukl suggest involves the ability to persuade others. Yukl (2013, p.18) further states there are additional factors that contribute to good leadership such as the situational context and the use of power. Another issue regarding the characteristics of leaders is that many theories and models have been based on Western perspectives (House and Aditya, 1997, p.409) and typically based on research with white males (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, CIPD, 2008, p.7). There is some cultural crossover in servant leadership, which according to Northouse (2013, p.219), was originally proposed by Greenleaf in the 1970s, and also has origins in ancient Eastern and Western philosophies; for example, it is deeply embedded in Arab-Islamic culture (Sarayrah, 2004, p.59). A further concern is raised by Mullins (2008, p.265) who states that determining who is a 'good leader' is a subjective judgement and cannot be based, for example, on financial performance alone. The aim of the following essay is to investigate whether certain characteristics are related to good leadership and which can be identified in theories and models of leadership such as trait theory, transformational and charismatic leadership as well as authentic and servant leadership. Finally, there will be a brief discussion regarding interpersonal characteristics such as emotional intelligence and communication skills.
Theories and Models of Leadership
Trait Theories
Trait theories of leadership proposed that successful leaders possessed distinctive traits or characteristics that differentiated them from unsuccessful leaders and subordinates. As Northouse (2013, p.7) mentions there are common phrases in use in society such as ' he was born to be a leader' or 'she is a natural leader' which suggest that people tend to think good leaders are born and not trained. The concept of leaders having certain characteristics dominated research prior to the Second World War. It was thought that individuals could be selected for leadership positions if they showed the appropriate characteristics or alternatively that traits could be taught to leaders (Furnham, 2005, p.571). Popular books, such as Stephen Covey's book, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, propose that certain traits or characteristics can be learned. Covey (2004, p.46) states that 'our character, basically, is a composite of our habits.' Covey continues saying that habits are consistent, can be learned or unlearned and express an individual's character and how effective or ineffective they are (Covey, 2004, p.46). Covey suggests that effective people are proactive, have a clarity regarding their life-goals, manage themselves, value and respect other people, are empathic and encourage positive teamwork (Covey, 2004, p.65). The seventh habit involves taking time to 'sharpen the saw' which Covey translates as meaning time to refresh physical, spiritual, psychological and socio-emotional dimensions of a person's character (Covey, 2004, pp.287-288).
A number of characteristics and traits related to good leaders have been identified; for example, Smith and Foti (1998, p.147) undertook a study investigating the characteristics of emergent leaders and found that the traits of dominance, intelligence and self-efficacy were significantly higher in emergent leaders than other individuals who were not classified as emergent leaders. According to Furnham (2005, p.572), good leaders usually possess characteristics such as persistence, innovation and a willingness to take responsibility for their actions. Yukl (2013, p.146) similarly identifies certain characteristics related to good leaders which include a high tolerance of stress, emotional maturity, personal integrity, motivation and self-confidence. However, Furnham (2005, p.574) suggests that although there are numerous traits, there appears to be little agreement regarding which characteristics contribute to a leader being effective.
According to Zaccaro, (2007, p.6) trait theories are not able to explain how leaders' characteristics adapt to different situations and contexts and thus a major criticism of trait theories is that they do not consider the wider context of culture, society or the interactions with the characteristics of subordinates (Zaccaro, 2007, p.7). Examining the characteristics of good leaders implies that leaders innately possess certain personality traits although it could be suggested that some good leaders can learn through experience (Bryman, Collinson, Grint, Jackson and Uhl-Bien, 2011, p.78). The notion that good leaders can learn skills through a dynamic learning experience is supported by other researchers; for example, Rodd (2006, p.13) proposes that practitioners within the Early Years profession can become leaders through 'demonstrating increasing competence' and by developing the personal skills necessary to become a leader. Daly and Byers (2004, p.7) suggest that good leaders will also ensure that employees have the opportunity for training and professional development which in turn may help them to become good leaders. Kolb (1984, p.25) similarly supports the idea of learning leadership skills through experience and suggests that learning involves a constant change of ideas, perspectives and opinions which are not fixed and thoughts are 'formed and reformed through experience' and 'continually modified by experience'. The importance of having a flexible approach is emphasised by Daly and Byers (2004, p.187) ensuring that the leader is adaptable and can implement new ideas or procedures when necessary. Even early theorists such as Taylor (1911, p.7) argued that good leaders are not born and required systematic training instead of being reliant on 'some unusual or extraordinary man'.
It is further argued by Zaccaro (2007, p.10) that because being a good leader is complex there is probably an interaction of the leader's characteristics as well as an interaction with the variables present in different situations and contexts. Theories such as Fiedler's contingency theory (Fiedler 1967, cited in Northouse, 2013, pp.123-125) were developed primarily with leaders in the military and focused on how compatible the characteristics and style of the leader were with a specific situation. Thus, 'effective leadership is contingent on matching a leader's style to the right setting (Northouse, 2013, p.123). A problem with both trait theories and contingency theories is that they appear to focus on the characteristics of the leader and do not consider the characteristics of, the interactions with, or the role of, subordinates. Contingency theory does not explain why some leaders are better in certain situations than other leaders and also how organisations deal with a mismatch between leaders and certain situations (Northouse, 2013, p.129).
Transactional and Transformational Leaders
Furnham (2005, p.588) suggests that transactional leadership can be defined as a contract between the leader and a worker where the leader achieves what they want by offering some sort of reward which is desired by the employee. There is typically a limited relationship between the leader as in certain situations (for example in the military) transactional leadership is necessary as certain actions need to be undertaken without subordinates questioning or debating issues (Bass and Bass, 2008, p.41; Bryman et al. 2011, p.55). Transactional leadership does not appear to be concerned with the characteristics of leaders and is more concerned with creating structures and systems which allow the sharing of information (Bryman et al. 2011, p.61). Transactional leadership depends on contingency reinforcement which means the subordinate understands that a reward will be received when performance goals are achieved (Bass and Riggio, 2006, p.8).
Transformational leadership developed from the foundations of transactional leadership with four further characteristics namely; charisma and idealised influence which indicates that the leader is admired, respected, and trusted; inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and consideration towards individual workers (Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson, 2003, p.208; McKenna, 2005, p.411). By showing an interest in the personal development of followers there can be a subsequent increase in performance and productivity as well as creativity and innovation subordinates can often be creative which can then have an impact on the competitive advantage of the company (Bass, et al 2003,p.208). Bass and Bass (2006, p.41) also suggest that transformational leaders usually believe and support the goals of the organisation and are able to articulate the goals to subordinates and engage their support and commitment. Other characteristics identified in transformational leaders is that they show consistent behaviour and tend to have a strong focus on integrity, ethical principles and values together with being flexible and able to adapt to change (Judge and Piccolo, 2004, p.755). McKenna (2005, p.408) states that transformational leaders have characteristics such as vision and are able to motivate and inspire subordinates to share their vision. As Sir John Harvey-Jones, MBE, who was the chairman of Imperial Chemical Industries from 1982 to 1987 and has recently helped failing business shown in a BBC television programme called Troubleshooter states:-
'The vision is absolutely key to getting your troops together. It has to be qualitative, daring and grab the imagination. The test of it should be how quickly people will latch on to where you are going……' (cited in Mullins, 2008, p.261).
The characteristics of transformational leaders are important in an organisation because they are viewed as a more effective leadership style than transactional leadership for example. Bass and Riggio (2008, p.10) suggest that many subordinates are very loyal to transformational leaders and are committed to the organisation so productivity increases and improves which Bass and Riggio (2008, p.10) suggest is one way of demonstrating the efficiency of the leader. The characteristics of transactional and transformational leaders are not mutually exclusive and there may be occasions when a leader has to show transactional characteristics as well as transformational characteristics. An example is cited by Bass and Bass (2008, p.51) which states that famous leaders such as John F. Kennedy and Abraham Lincoln displayed characteristics of both transactional and transformational leaders. Transactional leadership, for example, has been found to be more effective in a well-ordered, stable environment whereas transformational leadership is suitable in organisations that are changing rapidly such as in times of financial upheaval (McKenna, 2006, p.418).
Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders
As discussed previously, one characteristic of transformational leaders is charisma (Bass, et al. 2003, p.216) although there are some leaders who are characterised as being so charismatic that they are referred to as charismatic leaders. Chio (2006, p.24) defines charismatic leaders as having three additional, core characteristics which are an ability to predict future trends and be visionary; being a creative thinker, and showing empathy and empowering colleagues. According to House, 1977, (cited in McKenna, 2006, p.411) charismatic leaders can motivate subordinates to perform effectively without having to invoke their position of power; they have a vision and the ability to convince subordinates to support that vision. Further characteristics include determination, energy, self-confidence and ability; in addition they are not afraid to be unconventional (McKenna, 2006, p.411).
Although charismatic leaders are unusual and exceptional in the business world, Hellriegel and Slocum (2007, p.240) use as an example Richard Branson who demonstrates the characteristic of both a transformational and a charismatic leader. Branson is characterised as someone who is prepared to follow his instincts and take risks, venturing into new territories (Boje and Smith, 2010, p.308). Branson has a flair for being slightly eccentric and is not afraid of being unconventional which Choi, as discussed previously, describes as a characteristic of charismatic leadership. Branson makes a clear statement about his company, Virgin, as being 'different, colourful, iconoclastic and fun-loving' (Crainer and Dearlove, 2008, p.43). Branson's character appears to reflect the character of his company; for example, he appeared dressed as a Virgin bride and also abseiled down a skyscraper to promote his company (Business Pundit, 2011, n/p).
The CIPD (2008, p.8) report that there is some dislike for the 'celebrity-like focus' on so-called charismatic leaders. In the US a study investigated fifty-nine CEOs of Fortune 500 companies and investigated the link between charisma and performance over a ten year period and found there was no relationship (Tosi et al. 2004, cited in CIPD, 2008 p.8). A criticism made by Alvesson and Spicer (2010, p.9) claims that by endowing leaders with characteristics such as charisma, gives them a heroic and unselfish quality which enables them to persuade followers to pursue goals almost unquestioningly. Furthermore, Alvesson and Spicer (2010, p.64) maintain that some transformational leaders can be perceived as 'saint-like'. Chio (2006, p.37) claims that frequently the positive aspects of charismatic leadership are emphasised and dysfunctional characteristics, such as the abuse of power, are often minimised. Chio (2006, p.36) reports that there can be very strong emotional bonds between a charismatic leader and their subordinates and in certain situations individuals may 'sacrifice themselves for the sake of the group to maintain harmonious relationships with others' (Triandis, 1995, cited in Chio, 2006, p.36). Thus charismatic leaders can use their influence malignantly; for example, there have been reports of charismatic leaders of religious sects who are able to persuade followers to commit mass suicide.
The CIPD (2008, p.8) also report on the 'dark-side' of charisma and suggest that although some leaders may superficially appear charismatic they hide undesirable characteristics such as dishonesty and greed. By the time such characteristics are discovered the organisation and employees may have suffered irreparable harm. Research undertaken by Collins (2001, cited in CIPD, 2008, p.8) investigated common characteristics in US companies quoted on the Stock Exchange whose performance was 'outstanding'. The findings indicated that common characteristics included an unshakable belief in their company and also a 'deep personal humility'. These CEOs were not at all charismatic and appeared to be quite unassuming. Collins also noted that failing companies had a CEO 'with a gargantuan ego' causing the company to fail (Collins 2001, cited in CIPD, 2008, p.8).
Interpersonal Characteristics of Leaders.
Characteristics of Authentic Leaders
As discussed in the previous sections there have been concerns regarding unscrupulous leaders; for example, although they may appear to be charismatic they may in fact have 'exploitative' motives (Bass and Riggio, 2008, p.5). Consequently there is a desire for leaders who are genuine and authentic (Bass and Riggio, 2008, p.xii). There appears to be some parallels between authentic leaders and servant leaders although currently there is limited research in this area according to Northouse (2013, p.235). Servant leadership focuses on the empathic characteristics of a leader towards subordinates and nurturing each employee's talents and potential which is beneficial for the organisation (Northouse, 2013, p.233). Servant leadership proposes that leaders want to serve others and emphasises the altruistic characteristics of leaders who are focused on the needs of their subordinates (Greenleaf, 1977, cited in Northouse, 2013, p.219). The characteristic of the servant leader are numerous and the underlying principles involve the way in which the leader treats subordinates in terms of honesty and treating them fairly. A successful relationship between the servant leader and followers is a two-way process and followers must be accepting of the principles of empowerment and the opportunity to grow.
A characteristic of leaders which seems to be related to good leadership is emotional intelligence. Goleman (1998, p.317) defines emotional intelligence as 'the capacity for recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions in ourselves and in our relationships'. Emotional intelligence involves five key factors; self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills (Goleman, 1998, p.9). It is argued that emotional intelligence is of benefit to leaders as it contributes to an awareness of their own emotions and how to regulate them as well as recognising emotions in others and having the social skills necessary to deal with other people's emotions (Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee, 2001, n/p).
Guirdham (2002, p.545) suggests that there are certain qualities that followers look for in leaders and that a leader does not automatically gain the respect from subordinates. However, such qualities vary with different situations and the type of subordinates who are expected to follow. Gaining acceptance as a leader is also more difficult where there is prejudice concerning gender, race and ethnic group, and disability. Guirdham (2002, p.545) states that in general to be accepted by subordinates the characteristics of the leader need to include knowledge, competence, status, identification with the group, motivation, being proactive in promoting the group's goals and good communication skills. As Sir John Harvey says:-
'You only get a company going where you want it to by leadership by example and by honest and endless communication' (cited in Mullins 2008, p.261).
Communication appears to be a very important characteristic of a good leader together with interpersonal relationships which is also related to emotional intelligence as discussed previously. It has been found that directive, coherent and positive communication is an effective style for leaders (Guirdham, 2002, p.550). However, other characteristics are also necessary such as trust, the way in which leaders try to persuade or influence followers and the way in which subordinates are encouraged to participate in decision making.
Conclusion
It can be seen from the evidence presented that identifying the characteristics of a good manager is a complex task as there are many different traits or personality characteristics involved. Additionally characteristics cannot be identified in isolation and the situation or context must also be considered. Early research, for example trait theories, focused on the leader and did not consider the role or characteristics of the subordinates. This would appear to be relevant in contemporary society as employees are more empowered than they were in the past and are therefore less likely to blindly follow a leader. Transformational and charismatic theories of leadership identify many positive qualities in leaders; however, there is the issue identified by many researchers of deceitful leaders who can cause a company to collapse as in the case of Enron and other similar examples. The characteristics of a leader need to be genuine and authentic and the theoretical perspective of servant leadership emphasises the caring aspect of leaders towards their followers. Typically servant leaders are altruistic and are concerned about the well-being of others. There are a number of characteristics which appear to be more important than others although it is difficult to isolate only a few. However, one characteristic that does seem to be high on the list for good leaders is good communication and interpersonal skills (Guirdham, 2002, p.550).
References
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Bass, B.M. and Bass, R. (2008). The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications (4th Ed) New York, NY: Free Press.
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Friday 7 July 2017
Four pillers of education as recommended by unesco
FOUR PILLARS AS RECOMMENDED BY UNESCO
1. LEARNING TO KNOW
Learning to know implies learning how to learn by developing one's concentration, memory skills and ability to think.
Every individual has hidden talents such as
1. Memory
2. Reasoning
3. Imagination
4. Physical ability
5. Aesthetic sense
6. Aptitude to communicate
From infancy, young people must learn how to concentrate - on objects and on other people. This process of improving concentration skills can take different forms and can be aided by the many different learning opportunities that arise in the course of people's lives (games, work experience programmes, travel, practical science activities, etc.)
The development of memory skills is an excellent tool for countering the overpowering stream of instant information put out by the media. It would be dangerous to conclude that there is no point in people's improving their memory skills because of the vast amount of information storage and distribution capacity available. While some selectivity is undoubtedly required when choosing facts to be "learned by heart", there are numerous examples of the human memory's ability to outperform computers when it comes to establishing connections between memorized facts that apparently have very little to do with each other. The specifically human ability of associative memorization is not something that can be reduced to an automatic process; it has to be carefully cultivated. Furthermore, specialists in this field agree that memory skills have to be developed from infancy and that it is dangerous to discontinue various traditional exercises in schools simply because they are considered to be boring.
Thinking is something children learn first from their parents and then from their teachers. The process should encompass both practical problem-solving and abstract thought. Both education and research should therefore combine deductive and inductive reasoning, which are often claimed to be opposing processes. While one form of reasoning may be more appropriate than the other, depending on the subjects being taught, it is generally impossible to pursue a logical train of thought without combining the two.
Suggestions : -
Varied Curriculum: Subject matter , library activities , laboratory activities, playground activities, co-curricular activities
Different methods of teaching
• Inductive-Deductive
• Problem Solving
• Laboratory Work
LEARNING TO DO
This question is closely associated with the issue of occupational training: how do we adapt education so that it can equip people to do the types of work needed in the future?
Learning must transform certified skills into personal competence. It is assessed by looking at a mix of skills and talents, social behaviour, personal initiative and a willingness to work. These are often referred to as interpersonal skills or peoples’ skills by employers. Knowledge along with other qualities like communication, teambuilding and problem solving skills is most demanded by the service sector these days. Personal Competence includes life skills like :
1. Social behavior
2. Personal initiatives
3. Willingness to take risk
4. Communication skills
5. Problem solving skills
5. Adaptability
6. Social responsibility
7. Leadership skills
LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER
Education should help in inculcating a spirit of empathy in students so that it can have a positive effect on their social behaviour throughout their lives. Understanding each other, resolving conflicts through dialogue and discussion should be the essential tools of present day education.
People of the world should accept their differences but start working on the basis of their commonalties for the survival of humankind.
Values to be developed amongst students
a) Non Violence
b) Cooperation
c) Selfless attitude
d) Developing values
e) Accepting human diversity
f) Instill an awareness of the similarities and interdependence of all people
Learning to be
The aim of development is the complete fulfillment of man and his development in a holistic way as an individual, member of a family and community and as a responsible citizen.
Thursday 6 July 2017
Gandhiji's view on women empowerment
Mahatma Gandhi had expressed his views and had written on numerous issues that concerned the Indian Society in particular and humanity in general. This article examines the importance and relevance of his views on issues that directly or indirectly impacts the status of women in India. The following issues are being considered
Equality of Sexes.
Marriage.
Purdah.
Dowry System.
Widow Remarriage.
Divorce.
Women’s Honor.
Education and Co-education.
Birth Control.
Sterilization.
Wednesday 5 July 2017
Purushartha
Purusha means either God or a human being. Artha means, purpose, an object or objective. "Purusharthas" means objectives of a person or a human being. Purusha does not mean male in the physical sense, but any individual soul or Self in its purest, undifferentiated aspect. So the Purusharthas are applicable to both men and women equally.
However, the Hindu law books place greater emphasis upon men in performing their obligatory duties and associative roles for women. Sons in a family may have emotional attachment with their mother but have an obligatory duty towards their father, who is responsible for their birth since, as per Hindu beliefs, he carries them in his semen before he transfer them to his wife. A father also lives through his sons. He transmits his powers, name and fame, to his eldest son before he departs from this world. Thus, the Vedic tradition, as is the case with many ancient religious traditions, is predominantly men oriented.
The Purusharthas serve as pointers in the life of a human being. They are based on the vision of God which is evident in the creation He manifested and which can be followed by man to be part of that vision and in harmony with His aims. His worlds are established on the principles of dharma. They are filled with the abundance of material and spiritual beings and energies, who seek fulfillment by achieving their desires and liberation. Since man is God in his microcosmic aspect, he too should emulate God and manifest the same reality in his own little world. He should pursue the same aims, experience life in its fullness and be an instrument of God by serving the purpose for which he has been created. The four chief aims or Purusharthas are:
1. Dharma (righteousness),
2. Artha (wealth),
3. Kama (desire) and
4. Moksha (salvation or liberation).
The rationale behind these Purusharthas becomes clear when we consider the basic tenets of Hinduism. Man is an aspect of God. He is God's objective reality in creation. He exists in relationship with God like a reflection in the mirror that is somewhat different yet inseparable and somewhat similar. Veiled in him is the true self by the influence and involvement of Prakriti or primordial nature. The purpose of his life upon earth is to follow the law (dharma) of God and achieve salvation (moksha) or freedom from his false self (ahamkara) by leading a balanced life in which both material comforts and human passions have their own place and legitimacy. The four aims are essential for the continuity of life upon earth and for the order and regularity of the world. They provide structure and meaning to human life and give us a reason to live with a sense of duty, moral obligation and responsibility.
Man cannot simply take birth on earth and start working for his salvation right away by means of just dharma alone. If that is so man would never realize why he would have to seek liberation in the first place. As he passes through the rigors of life and experiences the problem of human suffering, he learns to appreciate the value of liberation. He becomes sincere in his quest for salvation. So we have the four goals, instead of just one, whose pursuit provides us with an opportunity to learn important lessons and move forward on the spiritual path. What the Purusharthas characterize is not a life of self-negation, but of balance, complexity, richness, opportunities and moderation in a cosmic drama of immense proportions in which man ultimately envisions and experiences his true grandeur and fulfills the very purpose of his creation.
Every individual in Hindu society is expected to achieve these four objectives with detachment, without any expectation and as a sacrificial offering to God in the ritual of human life. They have to be pursued selflessly for a higher and greater cause. Depending upon the attitude and the manner in which we pursue them, they either set us free or entangle us deeper with the allurements of human life.
Dharma
The first of the goals is dharma, a word which is difficult to translate in English. Since the same word is used in many eastern religions, it means many things to many people and eludes a true definition. It has been variously translated as duty, faith, religion, righteousness, sacred law, justice, ethics, morality and so on. According to one school of Hinduism, dharma is an obligatory duty as prescribed by the Vedas to be performed by an individual in accordance with the rules prescribed for the caste to which he or she belongs. God is an upholder of dharma because he performs His duties even though they are not obligatory and He is without desire or preference.
There is no word in Latin or English that can truly explain the complex meaning of dharma. Its first letter "dha" is also the first letter of dharitri, the earth, which is suggestive of its connection with the earth or earthly life. In a wider sense, dharma is the secret glue, the binding force, which upholds and regulates this entire creation just as the gravitational force controls and holds the entire material universe as one piece. It is the divine constitution that defines our roles and responsibilities, our social and moral order, our purpose and goals and the rewards and punishments that are appropriate for our actions. It is the law of God that is sacred, inviolable and pervasive. It is responsible for order, regularity, harmony, control, predictability and accountability. According to Manusmriti, dharma is four footed in the Krita age and loses one leg in each successive age. Thus in the fourth and last age of Kali, it becomes crippled and rests upon just one leg.
Dharma exists in all planes, in all aspects and at all levels of creation. In the context of human life, dharma consists of all that an individual undertakes in harmony with divine injunctions and his own sense of morality and justice. However to comprehend the true nature of dharma is not an easy task. The world is enveloped in illusion as our human minds are. What we see in the world and learn from it may not be true and reliable. What we consider as right and wrong or dharma and adharma may not stand the test of truth. Hence to practice dharma we are advised to rely upon the scriptures and follow the injunctions contained there in.
The sources of dharma are the Vedas, the Vedangas, the Sutra literature of which the most important are the Dharmashastras, and scriptures such as the Bhagavadgita. In ancient India Dharmashastras (law books) played an important role in guiding people on the path of dharma. It is however difficult to say how far they are relevant in the present age. One should also remember that dharma should not be viewed as end in itself but the means to a still higher end, liberation.
Artha
Artha means wealth. Hinduism recognizes the importance of material wealth for the overall happiness and well being of an individual. A house holder requires wealth, because he has to perform many duties to uphold dharma and take care of the needs of his family and society. A person should not seek wealth for wealth sake but to uphold dharma and help the members of his family and society achieve their goals. Hinduism therefore rightly places material wealth as the second most important objective in human life. While dharma and moksha are meant for oneself, wealth and sex are to be pursued for the sake of others. Lord Vishnu is the best role model for any householder. He leads a luxurious life, served by the goddess of wealth herself, but is very dutiful, helpful, responsive and righteous. So was Lord Krishna while he was in human form. He lived a very luxurious life, but was righteous, detached and balanced.
Hinduism advocates austerity, simplicity and detachment, but does not glorify poverty. Wealth is not an impediment to self-realization, but attachment to wealth is. Desire for wealth is different from greed for wealth. Selfless desire for wealth is preferable to selfish desire for wealth. Money and wealth are a form of divine energy. God is abundance. He is endowed with eight kinds of wealth. But as Sri Aurobindo pointed out we have negative attitude mostly about wealth because hostile and negative forces want us believe so and thereby prevent its use for righteous reasons.
Seeking wealth through human actions is not discouraged in Hinduism. The Vedic hymns are mostly invocations addressed to gods and goddesses by men desiring wealth and prosperity. However they also emphasize the need for right intention, right means and moderation in the pursuit of wealth. Aiming for wealth is a virtue, but greed is not. Amassing wealth for the family and for the welfare of oneself is not sinful, but taking what does not belong to one is. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism benefited greatly in the past by the individual contribution of rich merchants, their wives and children.
Poverty has become a grotesque reality in present day Hindu society and erroneously considered by many as a virtue. This is a Christian influence. Hindus have become so poverty conscious that if a saint or a sage leads a comfortable life, they scoff at him, saying that he is not a true yogi. They have to remind themselves of the simple fact that none of the Hindu gods and goddesses are really poor. While they always help the poor and the needy, none of them glorify poverty as a virtue. According to Hinduism all experiences are self created and provide an opportunity to learn. So is poverty and so is wealth. Renunciation does not mean to leave aside wealth or denounce the wealthy. It means detachment from wealth. To become indifferent to the comforts and discomforts of life caused by wealth.
Hinduism advocates moderation and balance in the pursuit of material and spiritual goals. Some Hindus think otherwise, ignoring the fact that what is applicable to an ascetic does not apply to a householder. Swami Vivekananda rightly said that religion was not for the empty stomachs. When a person is beset with survival problems, he would hardly find any solace in religion. Soothing words would not comfort a hungry soul as much as a morsel of food.
Kama
Kama in a broader sense means desire and in a narrow sense sexual desire. Both Hinduism and Buddhism consider desire as the root cause of human suffering. According to the Bhagavadgita, desire leads delusion and bondage to the cycle of births and deaths. The way out of suffering is to become detached from the sense objects through such practices as yoga and meditation and perform desireless actions as a sacrificial offerings to God with a sense of duty, accepting God as the doer and without hankering after the fruit of one's actions. According to Manusmriti man performs sacrifices because of the desire for rewards, with the expectation that his actions will bear fruit. Not a single act of him here on earth appears ever to be done by a man free from desire. So he who performs his prescribed duties out of desire in the right manner will obtain the fulfillment of all the desires and reach the deathless state or even beyhond1. As we can see the right way to fulfill one's desire is by performing one's obligatory duties in the right manner but not by neglecting them so that the way of the dharma also becomes the way of fulfillment of desires.
Hinduism differs from other religions in its interpretation and approach to the subject of sex. Sex can be either a means to liberation and happiness in life or a great hindrance and cause of suffering depending upon how we approach it. In any case ultimately one has to overcome it to achieve salvation. It can be done either by abstaining from it or by indulging in it. The former is the way of the Vedanta and the latter the way of the Tantras. One is the way of suppression and the other the way of expression through detachment and understanding in which sexual energy is sublimated and transformed into a higher form of energy. It is just the way you learn to handle fire. In both cases the difficulties are way too many and so are the risks. Sexual desire is the ultimate of all desires and unless it is overcome one is not free from the taints of Maya.
In Hinduism there is permission for sexual activity up to a limit, so long as it is not in conflict with the principles of dharma and used for the purposes of procreation, perpetuation of family and social order, within the boundaries established by tradition, social norms and scriptures. Sexual activity is part of obligatory duty and not to be misused for enjoyment as it would lead to attachment, delusion and one's downfall. Sexual relationship outside marriage is not permitted except in special circumstances as laid down in the Dharmashastras. Marriage is a sacred institution in which both the husband and wife join their energies and destinies to promote each other's liberation by performing their respective obligatory duties, which only married couple can perform. Through the bonds of marriage they also bind their respective karmas.
While the law books draw a clear demarcation between legitimate and illegitimate sex, sex by itself is not considered unclean or sinful. Sexual desire is an important and legitimate aspect of manava dharma (human obligations) and is created by nature to perpetuate life in the material plane. Creation itself is a continuation of the union between Purusha and Prakriti, the male and female aspects of the manifest universe, which is symbolically represented in the form of Sivalinga. Creation ends when this union ends. Sexual desire is also the last stronghold of Prakriti and the final refuge of our attachment with samsara. It is the most difficult spiritual obstacle to be overcome. In most people it perpetuates the delusion of the mind and serves as an important force of Prakriti by which she maintains her stranglehold upon them and keeps them bound to the cycle of births and deaths.
The ambivalent attitude of Hinduism on the subject of sex is rooted in its historical growth during which it assimilated divergent traditions and practices of which some were derived from ancient fertility cults. It becomes evident as we go through the scriptures and find in them various stories related to the libidinous activities of various gods and goddesses. While on the one hand we have an established school of opinion that considers celibacy as a great virtue and a necessary condition for liberation, on the other we have stories from the Hindu Puranas which depict the sexual exploits of gods and goddesses and the odd situations that develop out of them.
Some of the stories give us an impression that the gods are oversexed beings who cannot control themselves from temptation in the company of beautiful women. Besides sensuous gods, there are celestial nymphs of indescribable beauty who add passion and drama to Hindu mythology through their activities. At times they descend to earth to disturb and distract the minds of ascetic people who are absorbed in deep meditation. Even Siva, Vishnu and Krishna are not above reproach. Many divinities and legendary heroes, including Bharata the founder of the Indian race are born out of illegitimate sexual conduct. Scholars however tend to consider these stories of sexual union to be symbolic in nature and not to be taken literally.
Whatever may be the truth, sex constituted an important aspect of Hindu society from ancient times. The Dharmashastras prescribed a definite code of conduct to safeguard the social and moral order. Married women were not allowed to meet men in private when they were not accompanied by their husbands or, in their absence, any other male member of their families. Women whose husbands died were allowed to beget children through their brother-in-laws (Gautama 18.4). A marriageable maiden who was not given in marriage had the freedom to choose her sexual partners after giving up the ornaments she received from her family and parents (Gautama 18.20). To avoid misuse of this provision, the scriptures recommended that girls should be married before they reached puberty. Adultery was a punishable offence while killing an unchaste woman or a prostitute was not (Gautama 22.26&27). Mental attitude, the state of mind and the dominant quality of Prakriti at the time of sexual union were considered important because they impacted the children who were born out of such unions. Polygamy was an accepted social norm. It bred intrigue and jealousy among women who shared a common husband. Women were sold and brought in the market place. While sex with unmarried maidens was a lesser taboo, adultery was a punishable offence. More so if it happened between a lower caste male and higher caste female.
According to Hinduism, sex in an important aspect of human life, but lust is not. Lust is one of the chief enemies of man. It is a demonic quality, just as greed and pride are, and one of the biggest hurdles on the spiritual path. All lustful activity would result in sin with unhappy consequences for all those involved in it directly or indirectly. Even gods are not spared from the consequences of lustful sex. However, prostitutes and pleasure girls added color and zest to ancient Hindu society. Some of them were highly skilled in the art and science of sex. They were patronized and frequented by men of repute. They employed various tricks to attract men and keep them under their charm. Prostitution is still a rampant problem in India and one of the chief concerns of women activists and welfare organizations
One of the notable developments within Hinduism during the post Mauryan period was the rise of Tantrism which upheld sexual activity and considered it to be an expression of the divine. The Tantrics indulged in various kinds of esoteric sexual rites to experience the blissful nature of God. They believed in the possibility of sublimating sexual energy through austerities and penances to transcend one's lower nature and achieve higher states of consciousness. They practiced various breathing and yoga techniques to prolong their sexual prowess so that they could experiences higher states of blissful consciousness during sexual union practiced with detachment. These sects continue to remain on the fringes of society attracting ridicule and criticism and largely unknown and misunderstood by the general public. For the vast majority of Hindus, sex is a taboo unless it is in tune with the social, moral and religious laws.
Moksha
The pursuit of dharma regulates the life of a human being and keeps him on the righteous path. The pursuit of artha and kama enrich his experience and impart to him valuable lesson. The pursuit of moksha or salvation liberates him and lead him to the world Brahman. The pursuit of dharma usually begins in the early age when one is initiated into religious studies. The pursuit of artha and kama begins in most cases after one becomes a householder. The pursuit of moksha however is the most important of all aims and can begin at any time. The other aims are preparatory for this final aim. However, in most cases, though not correctly, moksha becomes an important pursuit in the old age during vanaprastha or the age of retirement. Moksha is both a purushartha and a paramartha (transcendental aim), which is important not only for men but also for the divine beings.
Moksha actually means absence of moha or delusion. Delusion is caused by the inter play of the triple gunas, the activity of the senses, attachment with and desire for sense objects. A person achieves liberation when he increases the quality of sattva, suppressing rajas and tamas and overcomes his desire for sense objects by detachment, self control, surrender to god and offering of one's actions to God. There are many paths to salvation and all of them lead to God. The main paths are the path of knowledge, of action, of devotion and of renunciation. Each path has its own advantages and disadvantages. whatever may be the path, the help and guidance of a guru is indispensable to one's spiritual journey. A guru is God in human form whose his chief purpose is to remove the darkness hidden in the hearts and minds of his disciples and help them find their true selves.
The purpose of Purusharthas is to ensure that people would not neglect their obligatory duties in their deluded state by becoming obsessed with particular desires that may lead to moral and social decadence and destruction of family values. The four Purusharthas are responsible for balance in human life. They make life a rewarding and enriching experience. They cater to the spiritual and material aspirations of human beings and lead them in the right direction on the path of liberation. The exemplify the very functioning of God who, without any particular aim or desire, detached, seeks to establish these four aims in the entire manifest creation through his trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesha and Himself as the highest and supreme aim of all. Thus by worshipping Brahma we can gain the knowledge of dharma and perform our obligatory duties with precision and perfection. By worshipping Vishnu we can gain material and spiritual wealth and work for the welfare of our families and society. By worshipping Siva we can seek the fulfillment of our desires and overcome our delusion and finally by pursuing Brahman, or any of these gods as Brahman, we can achieve liberation by becoming Brahman Himself.

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