Artificial organs

An artificial organ is an engineered device or tissue that is implanted or integrated into a human — interfacing with living tissue — to replace a natural organ, to duplicate or augment a specific function or functions so the patient may return to a normal life as soon as possible.The replaced function does not have to be related to life support, but it often is. For example, replacement bones and joints, such as those found in hip replacements, could also be considered artificial organs.

Implied by definition, is that the device must not be continuously tethered to a stationary power supply or other stationary resources such as filters or chemical processing units. (Periodic rapid recharging of batteries, refilling of chemicals, and/or cleaning/replacing of filters would exclude a device from being called an artificial organ.) Thus, a dialysis  machine, while a very successful and critically important life support device that almost completely replaces the duties of a kidney, is not an artificial organ.

Ms swaminathan

Mankombu Sambasivan Swaminathan (born 7 August 1925) is an Indian geneticist and international administrator, renowned for his leading role in India's Green Revolution a program under which high-yield varieties of wheat and rice seedlings were planted in the fields of poor farmers. Swaminathan is known as "Indian Father of Green Revolution" for his leadership and success in introducing and further developing high-yielding varieties of wheat in India. He is the founder and chairman of the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation. His stated vision is to rid the world of hunger and poverty. Swaminathan is an advocate of moving India to sustainable development, especially using environmentally sustainable agriculture, sustainable food security and the preservation of biodiversity, which he calls an "evergreen revolution."

APJ Abdul kalam

Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam better known as A. P. J. Abdul Kalam(15 October 1931 – 27 July 2015), was the 11th President of India  from 2002 to 2007. A career scientist turned statesman, Kalam was born and raised in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, and studied physics and aerospace engineering. He spent the next four decades as a scientist and science administrator, mainly at the Defence Research and Development Organisation  (DRDO) and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and was intimately involved in India's civilian space programme and military missile development efforts.[1] He thus came to be known as the Missile Man of India for his work on the development of ballistic missile and launch vehicle  technology.He also played a pivotal organisational, technical, and political role in India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998, the first since the original nuclear test by India in 1974.

Hand book

A handbook is a type of reference work, or other collection of instructions, that is intended to provide ready reference. The term originally applied to a small or portable book containing information useful for its owner, but the Oxford English Dictionary defines the current sense as "any book...giving information such as facts on a particular subject, guidance in some art or occupation, instructions for operating a machine, or information for tourists."

A handbook is sometimes referred to as a vade mecum (Latin, "go with me") or pocket reference. It may also be referred to as an enchiridion, .

Handbooks may deal with any topic, and are generally compendiums of information in a particular field or about a particular technique. They are designed to be easily consulted and provide quick answers in a certain area. For example, the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers is a reference for how to cite works in MLA style, among other things. Examples of engineering handbooks include Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, and the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and physics

Human genome project

The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.It remains the world's largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, the project formally launched in 1990 and was declared complete in 2000. Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside government by the Celera Corporation, or Celera Genomics, which was formally launched in 1998. Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, Canada, and China.

The Human Genome Project originally aimed to map the nucleotides contained in a human haploid reference genome (more than three billion). The "genome" of any given individual is unique; mapping the "human genome" involved sequencing a small number of individuals and then assembling these together to get a complete sequence for each chromosome. Therefore, the finished human genome is thus a mosaic, not representing any one individual.

Statistical methods for assesment

Statistics is a branch of science that deals with the collection, organisation, analysis of data and drawing of inferences from the samples to the whole population.[1] This requires a proper design of the study, an appropriate selection of the study sample and choice of a suitable statistical test. An adequate knowledge of statistics is necessary for proper designing of an epidemiological study or a clinical trial. Improper statistical methods may result in erroneous conclusions which may lead to unethical practice.

VARIABLES
Variable is a characteristic that varies from one individual member of population to another individual.Variables such as height and weight are measured by some type of scale, convey quantitative information and are called as quantitative variables. Sex and eye colour give qualitative information and are called as qualitative variables


Descriptive statistics
The extent to which the observations cluster around a central location is described by the central tendency and the spread towards the extremes is described by the degree of dispersion.

Work book

Workbooks are often used in schools for younger students, either in middle school or elementary school. They are favored because students can work directly in their books, eliminating the need for looseleaf and copying questions from a textbook. In industry, they may be customized interactive manuals which are used to help provide structure to an otherwise complex problem.

Workbooks also hold an advantage because they are usually smaller and lighter than textbooks, which equates to less trouble when the student brings the book home to complete their homework.

The term workbook is also used to describe other compilations of questions that require the reader to complete scratch-work when dealing with higher-level mathematics. It can also be used as a training tool for certain job positions.

More recently, electronic workbooks have permitted interactive and customized learning. Such workbooks may be used on computers, laptops, PDAs, and may be web based

Assesment and evaluvation

When defined within an educational setting, assessment, evaluation, and testing are all used to measure how much of the assigned materials students are mastering, how well student are learning the materials, and how well student are meeting the stated goals and objectives. Although you may believe that assessments only provide instructors with information on which to base a score or grade, assessments also help you to assess your own learning.

Education professionals make distinctions between assessment, evaluation, and testing. However, for the purposes of this tutorial, all you really need to understand is that these are three different terms for referring to the process of figuring out how much you know about a given topic and that each term has a different meaning. To simplify things, we will use the term "assessment" throughout this tutorial to refer to this process of measuring what you know and have learned.


Why is Assessment Important?

Hopefully by this point in your life you have discovered that learning can be fun! You have probably also realized that you are constantly learning, whether you are in a classroom, a car, or a kitchen.

Assessment helps you build confidence in your ability to learn.

Natural resources


The rainforest in Fatu-Hiva, in the Marquesas Islands, is an example of an undisturbed natural resource. Forest provides timber for humans, food and shelter for the flora and fauna. The nutrient cycle between organisms form food chains and biodiversity of species.

The Carson Fall in Mount Kinabalu, Malaysia is an example of undisturbed natural resource. Waterfalls provide spring water for humans, animals and plants for survival and also habitat for marine organisms. The water current can be used to turn turbines for hydroelectric generation.

The ocean is an example of a natural resource. Ocean waves can be used to generate wave power which is a renewable energy. Ocean water is important for salt production, desalination, and providing habitat for deep water fishes. There are biodiversity of marine species in the sea where nutrient cycles are common.

A picture of the Udachnaya pipe, an open-pit diamond mine in Siberia. An example of a non-renewable natural resource.
Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, and electrical properties and forces etc. On earth it includes: sunlight, atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation, crops and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances.

Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level). A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, and as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form that must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, rare earth metals, petroleum, and most forms of energy.

There is much debate worldwide over natural resource allocations, this is particularly true during periods of increasing scarcity and shortages (depletion and overconsumption of resources) but also because the exportation of natural resources is the basis for many economies (particularly for developed countries).

Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, and are known as ubiquitous resources. However, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localised resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible (will not run out in foreseeable future) – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, and air (though access to clean air may not be). The vast majority of resources are theoretically exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if managed improperly.

Self evaluvation

Self Evaluation 

This semester was challenging but fruitful for me because I had to work hard so far but I have managed to reach a considerable progress in my learning and I believe I have been successful so far. In this regard, my failures are as important for me as or even more important than my successes because I have learned from my failures more than I have done from my success. Therefore, the main lesson I have learned is probably the fact that I should not rejoice, when I succeed, but I should rather stay aware and focused on my progress to perform well and succeed in my learning.

            On analyzing my performance during the semester, I believe that I was quite successful to a significant extent. In this regard, it is worth mentioning the fact that I have completed seven essays during the semester and almost all of them were quite successful because I received “A” grade for the majority of my essays. I really liked my performance but I am always concerned with receiving “A” grades for my work which is the only acceptable grade for me. I am success-oriented person. This is why I just cannot afford the grade below “A”.

            Such personal position urges me to do my best and to work hard to gain the possibly highest degree but, on the other hand, it is sometimes difficult and even frustrating to pursue the highest degree, especially if it is extremely difficult to receive. For example, there were cases, when I felt the task was quite challenging for me to complete it successfully. This is why I had to work really hard to obtain “A” degree for those papers. Nevertheless, I am aware that such tasks have made the most significant contribution to my progress and academic development because they encouraged not only my creativity but also stimulated the development of research skills which helped me to learn more about the subject I wrote about and to improve my writing and academic performance overall (Frosh 103).

            By the way, I believe research skills became particularly important for me during the semester because, while writing my papers, I conducted some research first. I have noticed that I was not really enthusiastic about researching topics which I believed I knew well. However, when I started the research, I found out many important and noteworthy facts, which I have never known before. Such revelations encouraged me to conduct the research of any topic I was writing about because it would be just arrogant from my part just to write the paper from the scratch on the ground of what I believe I know about the topic (Elliot 135). Now I believe that too much self-confidence seems to be not the best feature of a good writer.

            At the same time, there was one paper which I was not really good at and which I perceive as a sheer failure. I did not receive “A” grade for that paper because it turned out to be unbalanced, not clear and too broad that made me think of the lack of focus I had, while working on that paper. Frankly, my failure was probably the best lesson I learned from the semester. This failure made me focused on my paper and encouraged me to organize my papers better since I singled out the main point and attempted to draw back-up points to support it throughout my papers.

            Thus, I made a considerable progress during the semester and I am ready to keep working hard and learn not only from my success but also from my failures.

Educated unemployment

1. Introduction

A college degree has long been viewed as the ticket to a good job and social mobility, but many recent college graduates are finding that their investments in education are not paying off. It is true that young people with a bachelor’s degree are more likely to find a job than their less-educated peers, but recent graduates today suffer from high unemployment rates, declining wages, lower-quality jobs, and few opportunities for advancement.

Unemployment is a situation of not getting the work and wages with eligible conditions. People are getting education but not getting the jobs is educated unemployment. Unemployment is the most dangerous problem of each and every developing countries now a days. The root causes of the educated unemployment is to be analysed in detail, but we can say a major factor being ‘The government’s policies to downsize employees’. In this article we will see what the main causes of educated unemployment are and what the remedies are.

2. Main Causes Of Educated Unemployment

2.1. Economic Condition

Economic conditions are the main factor in unemployment. Once a company fails to pay its employees then there is no choice for the employees, they have to leave job. With no reason to continue paying them, they lose their jobs as the job simply disappears. Due to weak economic conditions company become unable to pay its employees. This was the status at times of the great Economic recession in developed countries too. India in spite being a developing country with its GDP growth have got a respectful economic stability status at the time of recession. But in most of the developing countries the economic condition plays a significant role in employment. Educated youth need employability and wage package that meets the skill they possess, but due to weak economic conditions there is no such opportunities or packages. Here the Government policies have great effect, it is to be polished in a way to utilise the full manpower the country has.

Employers are struggling hard to attract them with huge pay-packages that is increasing their production cost significantly. The employers are losing their competitive edge in global markets. Global slowdown only adds to the crisis. Corporations are now facing dual problem.

2.2. Lack of Skill

India economy mainly based on Agriculture, but at recent times there is significant boom in the IT and industrial growth. There are large number of employment opportunities in IT and industrial sectors. Despite large numbers of educated young, there is shortage of skilled manpower. There are unemployed youths and the companies are facing shortage of manpower.

Why these educated youths not absorbed by the new job sectors, as per the surveys and studies, they are mainly lacking three types of skills required to be placed in these jobs.

1. Communication skill
2. Analytical skill and problem solving
3. Domain

60% candidates are screened due to lack of communication skills, 25% percent are screened for analytical skills and 5% percent for their lack of knowledge in their respective domain. Hence 90% of educated youth force are lacking in one of these three main skills required for job and employment. Only 10% of educated youth of India is employable.

The problem lies in the education system. Indian education system has a mismatch with the requirements of the industries. Institutes teach whatever they want. They do not teach what industries require. Industries do not require what institutes teach. The syllabus committees have not been interfacing with the industries. Several big industries have to set-up their own in house training program to fight with the problem.

Most of the newly employed youths are compulsorily undergone employers own training program. This enhances cost of employers enormously. It also wastes time.

2.3. Technology Growth

The growth of new technologies are also be considered for unemployment to certain extend. Today there are machines that can do 10 days of 100 employees work in 1 day with 1 operator, a computer can do documentation works which included 100s of persons work. In some areas technology inclusion is a must for the growth of the economy and at the same time it reduces chances of job opportunities. The technology growth points to job opportunities to certain sector of specially educated people but leaves behind a mass.

2.4. Population and migration

Uncontrolled population growth and migration of foreign job seekers could also be counted as a cause of unemployment. Overpopulation is defined as a condition where a country’s human population exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment, as the population increases number job seekers increases but the available jobs not proportionally increased, resulting in unemployment. Unemployment is directly proportional to the population.

Migration is also a big concern in unemployment. When dealing with migration both in and out of the country to be noted. Migration of qualified skilled professionals from the country seeking better jobs outside, migration of people from neighbouring countries seeking jobs are also boosts the concerns in unemployment.

2.5. Some Other Reasons behind Educated Unemployment

1. b) Recessions
2. Inflation
3. Disability to do the job
4. Nepotism
5. Demand of highly skilled labour.
6. Attitude towards employers
7. Undulations in the business cycles
8. Unsatisfied incomes or salaries of the employees
9. Young people are not ready to take jobs which are considered to be socially degrading or lowly

3. Effects Of Educated Unemployment

It has been observed that one year of unemployment reduces the life expectancy by five years. Hypertension, cardiac problems, psychoneurosis, depression, suicide are rising among youth as also other behaviours including joining anti-social groups. Alcoholism, drug addiction, smoking, and rash driving behaviours have increased. These behaviours are to take revenge against the society which has made the youth develop low self-esteem due to unemployment or not being able to be a productive member of the society. The suicide rate in the high school going children has been increasing steadily.

3.1. Some Other Effects

1. Low economic growth.
2. Unemployment can lead to emotional and mental stress.
3. A person can also get demoralised, he can do wrong things like he can indulge in the habits like alcohol and drug abuse or even may commit suicide.
4. Higher income inequalities and disparities leading to nothing but poverty

4. Remedies

Although young workers are a unique group, their currently high unemployment levels do not require a unique solution. The thing that will bring down the unemployment rate of young workers most quickly and effectively is strong job growth overall. Focusing on policies that will generate demand for one countries goods and services (and therefore demand for workers who provide them)—policies such as fiscal relief to states, substantial additional investment in infrastructure, expanded safety net measures, and direct job creation programs in communities particularly hard-hit by unemployment—is the key to giving young people a fighting chance as they enter the labour market during the aftermath of current situations.

4.1. Efforts Made by Individual

After 10 + 2 comes a very crucial period where we almost get puzzled to what stream to go into. This is the time we should sit down and think what will be best for us. We will not find carpenters, shoemakers, tailors or even barbers in this queue of employment searchers. This clearly shows the failure of modern educational system and insolvency of our policy makers. So if we really want to solve the unemployment problem, the educational system must be made job oriented. Now our country does not need only clerks, it is in need of persons who can serve her by their physical and mental skill.

Remedies and Solutions to Educated Unemployment

1. The main remedy lies in the rapid industrialization.
2. The need of faster economic growth to generate more jobs.
3. The need of improvements in the education and training provided to the youths with a greater focus on vocational skills and self-employment.
4. The Government support to struggling industries is necessary to try to save jobs.
5. Promoting education especially female education and motivating people to have small families.
6. Enhanced focus on entrepreneurial, communication, and inter-personnel skill development
7. Increased cross-talk between public-private, formal/informal educational enterprises
8. Integrated counselling, evaluation, and career guidance initiatives

4.2. Effort Made By Government

1. Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (P.M.R.Y) for educated unemployed youth
2. Scheme for Educated Unemployed for employment generation in urban localities (SEEGUL)
3. Scheme of Self-Employment for Educated Unemployed Youth (SEEUY)
4. Schemes for the State Governments (Educated Unemployed Youth)
5. Scheme for “New Initiative in Skill Development through PPP” by Planning Commission of India
6. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act(MGNREGA)

4.3. Earn while you learn

Skills based education- One of the biggest problems that India faces towards eradicating its unemployment problem is the inter-temporal issue of making a living versus learning a skill. Rather than the traditional 12+4 years method of schooling there needs to be a different stream where skills are taught to those who need them to earn a living.

5. Career Decision And Unemployment

Career guidance helps people to reflect on their ambitions, interests, qualifications and abilities. It helps them to understand the labour market and education systems, and to relate this to what they know about themselves. Comprehensive career guidance tries to teach people to plan and make decisions about work and learning. Career guidance makes information about the lab our market and about educational opportunities more accessible by organizing it, systematizing it, and making it available when and where people need it.

If career guidance is both to develop important skills for life and work and to assist with immediate decisions, there are significant implications for schools. They must adopt a learning-centred approach, over and above information and advice approach. This means building career education into the curriculum.

6. Conclusion

The whole INDIA has become saturated by producing doctors, engineers and MBA’s. Now other professions are really climbing the ladder and it is very important for each student to identify his capabilities, his interest before taking up any course. Because, it is better to think before, rather than roaming here and there for getting a job. The employability, however, is a more serious problem and is a major challenge to the entire educational system and the content of the curriculum as well as the emphasis on the theoretical as distinguished from practical applied training. The efforts made by the Indian state and policy-makers in this area need to be reviewed carefully

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Action research in education

The Action Research Process

Educational action research can be engaged in by a single teacher, by a group of colleagues who share an interest in a common problem, or by the entire faculty of a school. Whatever the scenario, action research always involves the same seven-step process. These seven steps, which become an 7endless cycle for the inquiring teacher, are the following:

1. Selecting a focus
2. Clarifying theories
3. Identifying research questions
4. Collecting data
5. Analyzing data
6. Reporting results
7. Taking informed action

Step 1—Selecting a Focus

The action research process begins with serious reflection directed toward identifying a topic or topics worthy of a busy teacher's time. Considering the incredible demands on today's classroom teachers, no activity is worth doing unless it promises to make the central part of a teacher's work more successful and satisfying. Thus, selecting a focus, the first step in the process, is vitally important. Selecting a focus begins with the teacher researcher or the team of action researchers asking:

What element(s) of our practice or what aspect of student learning do we wish to investigate?

Step 2—Clarifying Theories

The second step involves identifying the values, beliefs, and theoretical perspectives the researchers hold relating to their focus. For example, if teachers are concerned about increasing responsible classroom behavior, it will be helpful for them to begin by clarifying which approach—using punishments and rewards, allowing students to experience the natural consequences of their behaviors, or some other strategy—they feel will work best in helping students acquire responsible classroom behavior habits.

Step 3—Identifying Research Questions

Once a focus area has been selected and the researcher's perspectives and beliefs about that focus have been clarified, the next step is to generate a set of personally meaningful research questions to guide the inquiry.

Step 4—Collecting Data

Professional educators always want their instructional decisions to be based on the best possible data. Action researchers can accomplish this by making sure that the data used to justify their actions are valid (meaning the information represents what the researchers say it does) andreliable (meaning the researchers are confident about the accuracy of their data). Lastly, before data are used to make teaching decisions, teachers must be confident that the lessons drawn from the data align with any unique characteristics of their classroom or school.

To ensure reasonable validity and reliability, action researchers should avoid relying on any single source of data. Most teacher researchers use a process called triangulation to enhance the validity and reliability of their findings. Basically, triangulation means using multiple independent sources of data to answer one's questions. Triangulation is like studying an object located inside a box by viewing it through various windows cut into the sides of the box. Observing a phenomenon through multiple “windows” can help a single researcher compare and contrast what is being seen through a variety of lenses.

When planning instruction, teachers want the techniques they choose to be appropriate for the unique qualities of their students. All teachers have had the experience of implementing a “research-proven” strategy only to have it fail with their students. The desire of teachers to use approaches that “fit” their particular students is not dissimilar to a doctor's concern that the specific medicine being prescribed be the correct one for the individual patient. The ability of the action research process to satisfy an educator's need for “fit” may be its most powerful attribute. Because the data being collected come from the very students and teachers who are engaged with the treatment, the relevance of the findings is assured.

For the harried and overworked teacher, “data collection” can appear to be the most intimidating aspect of the entire seven-step action research process. The question I am repeatedly asked, “Where will I find the time and expertise to develop valid and reliable instruments for data collection?”, gives voice to a realistic fear regarding time management. Fortunately, classrooms and schools are, by their nature, data-rich environments. Each day a child is in class, he or she is producing or not producing work, is interacting productively with classmates or experiencing difficulties in social situations, and is completing assignments proficiently or poorly. Teachers not only see these events transpiring before their eyes, they generally record these events in their grade books. The key to managing triangulated data collection is, first, to be effective and efficient in collecting the material that is already swirling around the classroom, and, second, to identify other sources of data that might be effectively surfaced with tests, classroom discussions, or questionnaires.

Step 5—Analyzing Data

Although data analysis often brings to mind the use of complex statistical calculations, this is rarely the case for the action researcher. A number of relatively user-friendly procedures can help a practitioner identify the trends and patterns in action research data. 

Step 6—Reporting Results

It is often said that teaching is a lonely endeavor. It is doubly sad that so many teachers are left alone in their classrooms to reinvent the wheel on a daily basis. The loneliness of teaching is unfortunate not only because of its inefficiency, but also because when dealing with complex problems the wisdom of several minds is inevitably better than one.

The sad history of teacher isolation may explain why the very act of reporting on their action research has proven so powerful for both the researchers and their colleagues. The reporting of action research most often occurs in informal settings that are far less intimidating than the venues where scholarly research has traditionally been shared. Faculty meetings, brown bag lunch seminars, and teacher conferences are among the most common venues for sharing action research with peers. However, each year more and more teacher researchers are writing up their work for publication or to help fulfill requirements in graduate programs. Regardless of which venue or technique educators select for reporting on research, the simple knowledge that they are making a contribution to a collective knowledge base regarding teaching and learning frequently proves to be among the most rewarding aspects of this work.

Step 7—Taking Informed Action

Taking informed action, or “action planning,” the last step in the action research process, is very familiar to most teachers. When teachers write lesson plans or develop academic programs, they are engaged in the action planning process. What makes action planning particularly satisfying for the teacher researcher is that with each piece of data uncovered (about teaching or student learning) the educator will feel greater confidence in the wisdom of the next steps. Although all teaching can be classified as trial and error, action researchers find that the research process liberates them from continuously repeating their past mistakes. More important, with each refinement of practice, action researchers gain valid and reliable data on their developing virtuosity.

Three Purposes for Action Research

As stated earlier, action research can be engaged in by an individual teacher, a collaborative group of colleagues sharing a common concern, or an entire school faculty. These three different approaches to organizing for research serve three compatible, yet distinct, purposes:

• Building the reflective practitioner
• Making progress on schoolwide priorities
• Building professional cultures

Building the Reflective Practitioner

When individual teachers make a personal commitment to systematically collect data on their work, they are embarking on a process that will foster continuous growth and development. When each lesson is looked on as an empirical investigation into factors affecting teaching and learning and when reflections on the findings from each day's work inform the next day's instruction, teachers can't help but develop greater mastery of the art and science of teaching. In this way, the individual teachers conducting action research are making continuous progress in developing their strengths as reflective practitioners.

Making Progress on Schoolwide Priorities

Increasingly, schools are focusing on strengthening themselves and their programs through the development of common focuses and a strong sense of esprit de corps. Peters and Waterman (1982) in their landmark book, In Search of Excellence, called the achievement of focus “sticking to the knitting.” When a faculty shares a commitment to achieving excellence with a specific focus—for example, the development of higher-order thinking, positive social behavior, or higher standardized test scores—then collaboratively studying their practice will not only contribute to the achievement of the shared goal but would have a powerful impact on team building and program development. Focusing the combined time, energy, and creativity of a group of committed professionals on a single pedagogical issue will inevitably lead to program improvements, as well as to the school becoming a “center of excellence.” As a result, when a faculty chooses to focus on one issue and all the teachers elect to enthusiastically participate in action research on that issue, significant progress on the schoolwide priorities cannot help but occur.

Building Professional Cultures

Often an entire faculty will share a commitment to student development, yet the group finds itself unable to adopt a single common focus for action research. This should not be viewed as indicative of a problem. Just as the medical practitioners working at a “quality” medical center will hold a shared vision of a healthy adult, it is common for all the faculty members at a school to share a similar perspective on what constitutes a well-educated student. However, like the doctors at the medical center, the teachers in a “quality” school may well differ on which specific aspects of the shared vision they are most motivated to pursue at any point in time.

Schools whose faculties cannot agree on a single research focus can still use action research as a tool to help transform themselves into a learning organization. They accomplish this in the same manner as do the physicians at the medical center. It is common practice in a quality medical center for physicians to engage in independent, even idiosyncratic, research agendas. However, it is also common for medical researchers to share the findings obtained from their research with colleagues (even those engaged in other specialties).

School faculties who wish to transform themselves into “communities of learners” often empower teams of colleagues who share a passion about one aspect of teaching and learning to conduct investigations into that area of interest and then share what they've learned with the rest of the school community. This strategy allows an entire faculty to develop and practice the discipline that Peter Senge (1990) labeled “team learning.” In these schools, multiple action research inquiries occur simultaneously, and no one is held captive to another's priority, yet everyone knows that all the work ultimately will be shared and will consequently contribute to organizational learning.

Why Action Research Now?

If ever there were a time and a strategy that were right for each other, the time is now and the strategy is action research! This is true for a host of reasons, with none more important than the need to accomplish the following:

• Professionalize teaching.
• Enhance the motivation and efficacy of a weary faculty.
• Meet the needs of an increasingly diverse student body.
• Achieve success with “standards-based” reforms.

Professionalizing Teaching

Teaching in North America has evolved in a manner that makes it more like blue-collar work than a professional undertaking. Although blue-collar workers are expected to do their jobs with vigilance and vigor, it is also assumed that their tasks will be routine, straightforward, and, therefore, easily handled by an isolated worker with only the occasional support of a supervisor.

Professional work, on the other hand, is expected to be complex and nonroutine, and will generally require collaboration among practitioners to produce satisfactory results. With the exploding knowledge base on teaching and learning and the heightened demands on teachers to help all children achieve mastery of meaningful objectives, the inadequacy of the blue-collar model for teaching is becoming much clearer.

When the teachers in a school begin conducting action research, their workplace begins to take on more of the flavor of the workplaces of other professionals. The wisdom that informs practice starts coming from those doing the work, not from supervisors who oftentimes are less in touch with and less sensitive to the issues of teaching and learning than the teachers doing the work. Furthermore, when teachers begin engaging their colleagues in discussions of classroom issues, the multiple perspectives that emerge and thus frame the dialogue tend to produce wiser professional decisions.

Enhancing Teacher Motivation and Efficacy

The work of teaching has always been difficult. But now it isn't just the demands of the classroom that are wearing teachers down. Students increasingly bring more problems into the classroom; parental and societal expectations keep increasing; and financial cutbacks make it clear that today's teachers are being asked to do more with less. Worse still, the respect that society had traditionally placed upon public school teachers is eroding, as teacher bashing and attacks on the very value of a public education are becoming a regular part of the political landscape. Consequently, teacher burnout has become the plague of the modern schoolhouse.

Many teachers now ask, “Am I making any difference?” Regardless of all the negative pressures on teachers, the sheer nobility of the work keeps many dedicated educators on the job, but only so long as they can get credible answers to the “efficacy” question. However, without credible evidence that the work of teaching is making a difference, it is hard to imagine the best and brightest sticking with such a difficult and poorly compensated line of work. Fortunately, evidence has shown that teachers who elect to integrate the use of data into their work start exhibiting the compulsive behavior of fitness enthusiasts who regularly weigh themselves, check their heart rate, and graph data on their improving physical development. For both teachers and athletes, the continuous presence of compelling data that their hard work is paying off becomes, in itself, a vitally energizing force.

Meeting the Needs of a Diverse Student Body

In a homogeneous society in which all students come to school looking alike, it might be wise to seek the one right answer to questions of pedagogy. But, as anyone who has recently visited an American classroom can attest, it is rare to find any two children for whom the same intervention could ever be “right on target.” The days are gone when it was possible to believe that all a teacher had to do was master and deliver the grade-level curriculum. It is now imperative that classroom teachers have strong content background in each of the subjects they teach, be familiar with the range of student differences in their classrooms, and be capable of diagnosing and prescribing appropriate instructional modifications based upon a knowledge of each child's uniqueness.

Crafting solutions to these dynamic and ever changing classroom issues can be an exciting undertaking, especially when one acknowledges that newer and better answers are evolving all the time. Nevertheless, great personal satisfaction comes from playing a role in creating successful solutions to continually changing puzzles. Conversely, if teachers are expected to robotically implement outdated approaches, especially when countless new challenges are arriving at their door, the frustration can become unbearable.

Achieving Success in a Standards-Based System

In most jurisdictions standards-driven accountability systems have become the norm. Although they differ somewhat from state to state and province to province, fundamentally these standards-based systems have certain things in common. Specifically, most education departments and ministries have declared that they expect the standards to be rigorous and meaningful, and that they expect all students to meet the standards at the mastery level.

The stakes in the standards movement are high. Students face consequences regarding promotion and graduation. Teachers and schools face ridicule and loss of funding if they fail to meet community expectations. Of course, none of that would be problematic if we as a society knew with certainty how to achieve universal student success. However, the reality is that no large system anywhere in the world has ever been successful in getting every student to master a set of meaningful objectives. If we accept the truth of that statement, then we need to acknowledge the fact that achieving the goal of universal student mastery will not be easy. That said, most people will agree it is a most noble endeavor in which to invest energy and a worthy goal for any faculty to pursue.

The reality is that our public schools will not prevail with the challenges inherent in the standards movement unless they encourage experimentation, inquiry, and dialogue by those pioneers (the teachers) who are working toward meeting those challenges. For this reason, it is imperative that these 21st century pioneers, our classroom teachers, conduct the research on “standards attainment” themselves.

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Man made resoures

Man made resources is defined as a resource created by humans. It does not occur naturally and is produced and consumed by humans. Man made resources are items or substances that have value to human lives that do not occur in the natural world.example.Botanical garden ,museum

Action research

Action research in education

Action research is an attractive option for teacher researchers, school administrative staff, and other stakeholders in the teaching and learning environment to consider (Mills, 2011). Specifically, action research in education can be defined as the process of studying a school situation to understand and improve the quality of the educative process (Hensen, 1996; Johnson, 2012; McTaggart, 1997). It provides practitioners with new knowledge and understanding about how to improve educational practices or resolve significant problems in classrooms and schools (Mills; Stringer, 2008). Action research uses a systematic process (Dinkelman, 1997; McNiff, Lomax, & Whitehead, 1996), is participatory in nature (Holter & Frabutt, 2012), and offers multiple, beneficial opportunities for those professionals working within the teaching profession (Johnson; McTaggart; Schmuck, 1997). These opportunities include facilitating the professional development of educators (Barone et al., 1996), increasing teacher empowerment (Book, 1996; Fueyo & Koorland, 1997; Hensen), and bridging the gap between research and practice (Johnson; Mills). These opportunities will be explored below.
Within education the main goal of action research is to determine ways to enhance the lives of children (Mills, 2011). At the same time, action research can enhance the lives of those professionals who work within educational systems. To illustrate, action research has been directly linked to the professional growth and development of teachers (Hensen, 1996; Osterman & Kottkamp, 1993; Tomlinson, 1995). According to Hensen, action research (a) helps teachers develop new knowledge directly related to their classrooms, (b) promotes reflective teaching and thinking, (c) expands teachers' pedagogical repertoire, (d) puts teachers in charge of their craft, (e) reinforces the link between practice and student achievement, (f) fosters an openness toward new ideas and learning new things, and (g) gives teachers ownership of effective practices. Moreover, action research workshops can be used to replace traditional, ineffective teacher inservice training (Barone et al., 1996) as a means for professional development activities (Johnson, 2012). To be effective, teacher inservice training needs to be

extended over multiple sessions, contain active learning to allow teachers to manipulate the ideas and enhance their assimilation of the information, and align the concepts presented with the current curriculum, goals, or teaching concerns. (Johnson, p. 22).

Therefore, providing teachers with the necessary skills, knowledge, and focus to engage in meaningful inquiry about their professional practice will enhance this practice, and effect positive changes concerning the educative goals of the learning community.
As a corollary to the professional growth opportunities offered to educators, action research also facilitates teacher empowerment (Johnson, 2012). In particular, teachers are empowered when they are able to collect and use data in making informed decisions about their own schools and classrooms (Book, 1996; Fueyo & Koorland, 1997; Hensen, 1996). Within the classroom, empowered teachers can implement practices that best meet the needs of their students, and complement their particular teaching philosophy and instructional style (Johnson). In exercising their individual talents, experiences and creative ideas within the classroom, teachers are empowered to make changes related to teaching and learning. By doing so, student achievement is enhanced (Marks & Louis, 1997; Sweetland & Hoy, 2002), and schools become more effective learning communities (Detert, Louis, & Schroeder, 2001).
Johnson (2012) asserts that action research bridges the gap between research and practice. For instance, the theoretical components underpinning action research practice are used to help practitioners understand and observe what is happening in a classroom setting. At the same time, and with the interests of best practice in mind, these collected data "are used to understand or inform theories and research related to best practice" (Johnson, p. 20). In a similar vein to the enhancement of the professional disposition of teachers, action research encourages teachers to become continuous learners within their classrooms and schools (Mills, 2011). Because of the professional, reflective stance required by practitioners engaged in the action research sequence, teachers are further encouraged to "examine the dynamics of their classrooms, ponder the actions and interactions of students, validate and challenge existing practices, and take risks in the process" (Mills, p. 46). These specific actions are similar to those regularly exercised by teachers on a daily basis; using a systematic, strategic action research plan provides those daily actions with increased structure, focus, and methodological rigour.

The process of action research

Many guidelines and models of action research are available to teachers wishing to engage in this research methodology. For instance, action research has been described as a 'spiralling', cyclical process (Lewin, 1952; Kemmis, 1988), as a research 'cycle' (Calhoun, 1994; Wells, 1994), and as a helix (Stringer, 2004). In this paper, the author has included the action research helix (Stringer, p. 4); - commonly referred to as the "Look, Act, Think" model - as Figure 1 (see below). This model is used by the author to introduce the key processes of action research to students in ED6765: Action Research in Education. In the 'Look' stage, information is gathered by careful observation through looking, listening, and recording. During the 'Think' stage, researchers analyse the collected information to identify significant features and elements of the phenomenon being studied. Finally, the 'Act' stage is where the newly formulated information is used to devise solutions to the issue being investigated.

Figure 1: Action research helix (adapted from Stringer, 2004, p. 4)
To expand the key processes found in Figure 1, the author uses the Action Research Cycle, found in Figure 2 (see below). In Figure 2, the Action Research Cycle broadens the Action Research Helix (see Figure 1) into five key steps: Designing the Study, Collecting Data, Analysing Data, Communicating Outcomes, Taking Action. According to Stringer (2008), this cycle is a common process of action research inquiry. When designing the study, researchers carefully refine the issue to be investigated, plan systematic processes of inquiry, and check the ethics and validity of the work. The second stage of the research cycle is where the researcher collects information from a variety of sources about the phenomenon of interest. Next, this information is analysed to identify key features of the issue under investigation. During the communication stage, the outcomes of the study are made known to relevant audiences through the use of appropriate media or fora. Finally, and of critical importance to the action research cycle, the researcher takes action by using the outcomes of the study. These outcomes are used to work toward a resolution of the issue investigated.

Figure 2: Action research cycle (adapted from Stringer, 2004, p. 5)

Action research within teacher education programs

Action research plays an important role in the preparation and professional development of teachers and pre-service teachers (Holter & Frabutt, 2012; Perrett, 2003). Specifically, action research initiatives are used within teacher education programs on national and international levels; namely, in Australia and in the United States. An initiative from each of these locations is listed and described briefly below.

Australia

In a south-west metropolitan region of Sydney, a research-based program was employed by ESL (English as a Second Language) teachers and consultants to develop a fusion between trainer-centred input and teacher-centred action research (Perrett, 2003). Three consultants associated with the Department of School Education in New South Wales and a lecturer in TESOL (teacher of English to speakers of other languages) organised the program. Demographically speaking, this region of Sydney is comprised of the highest percentage of ESL students in the state; it maintains seven Intensive English Centres for newly arrived high school students, and has numerous ESL teachers in the regular high schools. Twenty-five volunteer teachers from the area attended the program and six ESL consultants from other Sydney regions were invited as observers. The areas of input available to teachers included: learning strategies, thinking skills, questioning skills and the teaching of study skills.
During the four months of this action research project of the teacher educators, teachers experienced two cycles of action research. The first cycle required teachers to investigate students' learning strategies, and in the second cycle teachers implemented a plan to improve some aspect of their students' learning. These aspects included "summary writing, remedial reading, hotseating, introducing group work, vocabulary-learning techniques" (Perrett, 2003, p. 9). Following the observations of their implemented plans, teachers wrote reports on their work. At the conclusion of both action research cycles, the results suggested that there was scope for continuing to develop ways of 'marrying' the input and action research models of professional development for teachers. More specifically, and according to the teacher educators, the teachers appreciated being introduced to new ideas in their professional development experiences (Perrett, 2003). Consequently, those teachers stated they were most likely to integrate the insights gained from such experiences if encouraged to do so in a structured or semi-structured way. The organisers of the program concluded that considerable amounts of time need to be made available to teachers if similar projects are to be fully beneficial to learning communities.
Following the completion of two (2) action research cycles, organisers reflected on the significance of implementing this research-based program for teachers. Specifically, they administered a summative questionnaire to all teacher participants to identify benefits and shortcomings of the program itself. In these questionnaires, teachers responded directly and positively to most aspects, commonly stating: 'Made me aware of learning strategies,' 'Provided me with ideas for the future. It has made me think about the way my students learn,' and 'My understanding of action research has broadened.' Most negative responses centred on practical suggestions concerning logistical aspects of the program. For instance, suggestions included conducting the projects earlier in the school year, and introducing the model of action research earlier in the sessions. Perrett noted that in this program, "because the action research projects of the teachers became the action research of the teacher developers, three levels of learning took place (2003, p. 9). First, the school students developed their English and their understanding of how to learn English. Second, the teachers developed new ways of thinking and supporting student learning. Third, teacher educators engaged in a new model of teacher inservice training. After examining the outcomes of the program, Perrett concluded that "the results suggest that there is real scope for continuing to develop ways of marrying the input and action research models of inservice teacher development" (p. 9). For these researchers, teachers, and students, the implementation of action research methodology into a school community was considered to be a beneficial exercise.

The United States of America

At the University of Notre Dame, IN, the Mary Ann Remick Leadership Program is a graduate program undertaken by aspiring Catholic educational leaders (Holter & Frabutt, 2012). Completion of this program culminates in a Master of Arts degree in educational administration and leadership. Within the program, candidates must complete a four-course, 10-credit-hour action research sequence designed and implemented by the Program's faculty. The four-course sequence of learning experiences occurs over a three-year period in which "each degree candidate designs, executes, reflects upon, and disseminates an original, context-specific action research project" (Holter & Frabutt, p. 258). In the first course (Stage I), the action-researcher identifies an issue, problem, or need that will be the focus of their inquiry. This process provides an opportunity to identify a potential topic that is focused on change, is reasonable in scope, and is feasible to complete within one year. Additionally, the candidates are exposed to the basic components of educational research (research designs, methodologies, quantitative and qualitative data analysis) while continuing to focus on their own action research topic.
During Stage II candidates - who work as full-time teachers and administrators - implement their proposed action research project as they return to their schools. At the same time as they carry out the data collection process of their projects, these teachers and administrators are enrolled in an online course, Action Research in Catholic Schools I. This course requires candidates to "complete periodic research journal entries to update course faculty on progress and challenges, and each candidate receives individual consultation, feedback, and troubleshooting advice as needed" (Holter & Frabutt, 2012, p. 261). Two other features of Stage II include the completion of course readings based on key issues in action research, and a peer collaboration exercise. This exercise is done through groups - where each candidate is allocated to a five or six-member action research groups - and communication is conducted via email or telephone conference call. Groups communicate to update one another on progress, and exchange drafts of documentation used thus far in the action research process.
During the second semester of the academic year, program candidates commence Stage III of the four-course learning sequence. Candidates enrol inAction Research in Catholic Schools II, another online course in which they continue to work intensively on their individual action research project. The effort here is focused on "finalising data collection, defining the pattern of findings, and specifying the action researcher's interpretations and conclusions based on that information" (Holter & Frabutt, 2012, p. 262). Additionally, candidates plan for the next sequential steps of their project, namely: recommendations, suggested new interventions, or a subsequent round of the action research cycle. One further round of peer review occurs at this stage, where each candidate exchanges a paper draft with a colleague. The colleague reads the paper in its entirety, and provides specific written commentary and feedback on each section. In Stage IV, candidates complete the final iteration of the action research cycle by enrolling in a capstone course Leadership in Catholic Schools. This course is designed to facilitate reflection on the process of action research as it has unfolded in the school community, and to encourage dissemination of the results with their cohort peers and members of their school community (Holter & Frabutt). In taking a reflective stance towards their action research sequence, candidates 'unpack' the challenges, successes, and insights their experiences have brought them. Additionally, they are challenged to outline how the approach, skills and methodology of action research ultimately shapes them as a school leader.
Following the submission of a final report, emerging school leaders have experienced a full cycle of action research. As such, program organisers feel that these leaders have acquired a specialised set of skills and have demonstrated competencies particular to action research. According to the program organisers, this instructional and experiential process is beneficial to emerging school leaders as it "enrols members from a particular community, empowers them with the tools necessary for systematic research, challenges them to apply those tools to their own community needs, and supports them in the evaluation of the projects and interventions they are assessing" (Holter & Frabutt, 2012, pp. 263-264). Moreover, these candidates engage in a problem-solving process directed at an issue of real concern to them and their school community, and as such, enhance their own effectiveness as school leaders. To illustrate, one program graduate wrote:

No longer must I feel imprisoned by anecdotal evidence, which is far too often used to make important decisions regarding the fundamental aspects of the life of the school. Now if there is a problem, I have a systematic approach to examining existing research on a topic, collecting data, and analysing results that will allow me instead to be data informed (Holter & Frabutt, p. 264).

All feedback collected from program graduates indicated an appreciation for informed data usage as a mechanism for school leaders remaining intently focused on mission and continuous improvement.

Professional practice

At The University of Notre Dame Australia, the unit ED6765: Action Research in Education is offered to Master of Education students in Semester One each year. The unit commences in Summer Term (January), and concludes at the end of Semester One (June). At the beginning of the unit, students undertake an intensive mode of study for three (3) days. The purpose of this intensive period is to provide students with a background to the underlying purposes of research in general, to delineate the nature and purposes of action research, and to identify the essential elements of the action research process. Additionally, students are required to design their own action research project which is tailored to the specific needs of their educational context and circumstances. During the design stage, students are given 'first-hand' experience in the essential and preliminary action research processes of: clarifying and defining their selected problem, concern or challenge, and establishing an action research project focus and framework. Next, students are asked to complete a Research Proposal Application, which is comprised of several official documents. These documents include: the Research Proposal, two University Human Research Ethics application documents, and an Application to Conduct Research in Schools document. Once completed, all documents are submitted to be reviewed by the Research Committee within the School of Education; following this review, the research projects that will take place in Catholic schools are forwarded to the Catholic Education Office for further review (in addition to another set of proposal documents created by the CEOWA).
Once approval has been given for the research projects to commence, students are able to begin the data gathering stage. Following the January intensive study period, students return to campus for two 'Follow-Up' days. The purpose of these follow-up days is to provide students with further skills and knowledge in action research methodology, to allow students the opportunity to communicate their findings and recommended improvements, and to engage in exercises for planning and negotiating further actions in research. Additionally, the follow-up days have been planned at intervals that coincide both with the students' respective 'research journeys', and the submission of assignments for the unit. In terms of instruction, the teaching component for the first follow-up day engages students in activities concerned with validity and trustworthiness in qualitative research, and ethnographic interviewing techniques. The second follow-up day focuses on analysing and interpreting interview data, with particular attention given to coding techniques and processes for generating meaning through inferences and hypotheses. Throughout the duration of the unit all students receive individualised support from the lecturer via email, telephone, or office appointment.
The four assignments for ED6765: Action Research in Education are designed to complement the students' respective research journeys. For instance, the first assignment comprises the completed research proposal and supplementary Human Research Ethics application documents. This assignment provides students with a solid understanding of the stages of planning and preparing to conduct qualitative research within schools, and the specialised knowledge required to complete the appropriate application documents. Assignment Two requires students to compose a 1,500 word paper that specifically reports on the progress of their particular research project to date. The progress report allows the students the opportunity to reflect on how-methodologically speaking - they have been able to arrive at the present point in their project. Although students are not penalised for a lack of 'quantitative' progress within their projects, a key indicator of progress is the written testimony that acknowledges how they have been able to carry out a plan with procedural clarity and sound methodological rigour. Assignment Three is a 2,000 word paper that asks students to examine the methodological aspects of their research project against key, criteria established by highly experienced action researchers. After comparison, students are invited to explicitly state how their efforts at designing and conducting qualitative research could be improved, and outline how they will adjust their project accordingly such that it corresponds with the recommendations of professional researchers. The final assignment - Assignment Four - is comprised of two chief tasks: the completion of a summative report, and the analysis of an original, recorded ethnographic interview. It is here that the researchers are able to describe how far they have progressed into their projects, what procedural changes had to be made from the original research plan - and to justify these changes with good reasons, and to demonstrate proficiency in exercising research skills.
The unit ED6765: Action Research in Education enrols professionals from diverse areas of the educational enterprise, including: Early Childhood, Primary, Middle School, Secondary School, Leadership and Administration, and Tertiary. Consequently, the action research projects undertaken in any given year are increasingly diverse, with topics ranging from pedagogical efficacy to school-wide improvements in student behaviour. As evidence of this diversity, and to illustrate the efforts of engaged school practitioners, a brief synopsis of three (3) action research projects is now offered. The first project concerned one school Principal's approach to reducing the ongoing, negative behavioural interactions among students at lunchtime. This Principal collected data from a sample of students across all year levels at her Primary School through the administration of a qualitative survey. Additionally, all teachers at the school were interviewed in focus groups of three participants each. After the first 'cycle' of action research was complete, the Principal reflected on the collected data and determined that she needed to further narrow the focus of the project. To amplify, she found that a majority of reported incidents on the playground involved Year 6 or Year 7 male students. For the next cycle of research collection, the Principal planned to interview all Year 6 and Year 7 students.
A second project involved an Early Childhood teacher investigating ways to reduce anti-social behaviours among children in her Kindergarten class. Prior to commencing data collection, the teacher had noted that anti-social behaviours comprised children hitting, pushing, biting, and spitting. This teacher interviewed all Early Childhood teachers at her school with regards to this phenomenon, and collected observational data on current incidences of anti-social behaviour (and how these incidences were resolved). After collating and analysing the data, the teacher prepared a condensed account of commonly observed anti-social behaviours, together with the most effective strategies used to resolve the behaviours themselves. After presenting these data to her Early Childhood colleagues and the school Principal, the teacher began planning an information session for the upcoming Parent Night. The intention for this session was twofold; first, to ask the parents what anti-social behaviours they had witnessed outside of school, as well as effective resolution strategies, and second, to share the data collected thus far in the project. From this, the teacher wished to include the perspective of parents into developing (i) a school-wide policy for resolving anti-social behaviours in young children, and (ii) a unilateral approach between home and school in addressing this phenomenon.
For the third project, a Deputy Principal explored ways to improve the profile of the existing Professional Development program at his secondary school. At that time, this Deputy Principal had been tasked with leading a committee of school personnel responsible for the revitalisation of teacher inservice training. To begin the data collection phase of the project, all staff members were asked to complete a qualitative survey regarding Professional Development opportunities currently offered to staff at the school. Following the collation of these initial data, and based on responses proffered, the Deputy Principal purposively sampled staff for follow-up interviews. The results of the interviews were analysed and presented to the committee, who in turn, discussed the next logical steps in the action sequence. The 'act' step of this project was for the committee to (i) draft a Professional Development framework that took into account the suggestions, opinions, and needs of the project participants, and to (ii) present this framework to the school Principal for consideration.

Caveats and difficulties encountered

Over a four-year period, the author/lecturer has noted that students often encounter several, recurring difficulties with regards to the successful completion of the unitED6765: Action Research in Education.These difficulties include: a lack of clarity of focus for the project, managing constraints of time, and holding a presumed foreknowledge of the solution. Each of these caveats will be discussed briefly, together with some suggestions that students have found to be useful in alleviating the particular difficulty.
From the commencement of the unitED6765: Action Research in Education, students are required to focus on one area of concern in their classroom or school. Within this area of concern, students conduct qualitative research in an attempt to illuminate possible solutions to the prevailing problem. During the intensive period, students are taught to 'narrow down' the focus of their project by outlining the research participants and determining what will be asked of these participants. Statements outlining the justification for including these participants and stakeholders are scrutinised closely, together with the topic being investigated. This is done to ensure that the research projects are kept manageable, yet challenging and focused intently on the phenomenon of interest. Without the one-on-one discussion between lecturer and student prior to research proposal submission, there is a good possibility that several projects would be too broad to conduct within the specified time frame.
Because this unit requires students to conduct their own research project whilst fulfilling full-time duties within schools, time management can become an area of difficulty. When preparing the research proposal, students create a timeline detailing the key events within the unit (contact days, assignment due dates, proposal submission deadlines). Although this timeline is submitted as part of the research proposal (as an appendix), students retain an electronic copy of the timeline to assist with time management throughout the course. During repeated intervals within the unit, the lecturer remains in contact with the entire cohort of research students through group email; this contact assists students in meeting deadlines for assignments, preparing for the two additional contact days, and in maintaining focus on the research project.
The third caveat associated with teachingED6765: Action Research in Educationconcerns a commonly-held predisposition by students when commencing the unit. More specifically - and upon arrival to campus with a recognised 'problem' ready to investigate - students appear at this stage more inclined to presuppose to know what the solution to this problem is. Of course, a key tenet of action research is that one must follow the 'observe-reflect-act' process (Stringer, 2004), and this highlighted on Days One and Two of the intensive period of study. Furthermore, this process requires students to speak to (a) suspend any preconceived ideas of what the potential solution(s) to the problem might be, and (b) speak to all project participants before arriving at a decision on how to logically proceed with a plan towards improvement. During the intensive period of study, the lecturer uses several opportunities to carefully explicate that the action research sequence is one that requires patience in planning, researching, and analysing data before committing to a plan of action. These opportunities include the explicit instruction of key principles of action research, during a one-on-one discussion at the proposal planning and submission stage, and through the ongoing provision of feedback regarding the research projects.

Conclusion

There is clear evidence to suggest that action research is a valuable exercise for teachers to undertake. It offers teachers a systematic (Frabutt et al., 2008), collaborative (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988), and participatory (Holter & Frabutt, 2012; Mills, 2011) process of inquiry that actively seeks to address areas of concern or redress. Additionally, action research provides teachers with the technical skills and specialised knowledge required to effect positive change within classrooms, schools, and communities (Johnson, 2012; Stringer, 2008). Ultimately, the solutions-based focus, emphasis on fostering practitioner empowerment, and pragmatic appeal of action research collectively render this research methodology a worthwhile professional development activity for teachers. There is unlimited scope for teachers wishing to develop 'customised' action research projects of their own, as topics for investigation are as multifarious as the daily vignettes evidenced in the teaching profession. To conclude, universities must include action research as a core unit in teacher preparation degree programs - either at the undergraduate or postgraduate level