NCERT

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is an autonomous organisation of the Government of India that was established on 1 September 1961 as a literary, scientific  and charitable Society under the Societies' Registration Act (Act XXI of 1860). Its headquarters are located at Sri Aurbindo Marg in New Delhi.[1] Dr Hrushikesh Senapathy has been director of the council
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educational ideas of Dr Radhakrishnan

            Education is a special discipline and theory and practice of education deserves to receive a special attention. According to Sathya Sai Baba, “An education system in country is a bank on which the people can draw a cheque for the upliftment of the society”. The organization of such a bank needs to be suplemised and progressive. It is only the contribution of great thinkers in the field of education can guide the planners to have this organization on sound footings. We in India have an ideal educational system in ancient time. It worked well for the society of that time. In such a system there were some basic principles and postulates some ideals, rules and regulations which we have implemented in the right earnest in ideal educational situations.

            Great thinkers of contemporary India have given their verdict on the basic principles as well as needed reflections. One of the most important persons was a Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. The crucial role that be played in the formative years of our republic and his contribution to the consolidation of our political and parliamentary traditions, and especially the significant role that be played as one of the most brilliant of our philosophy, acting as cultural ambassador to the west. Except for occasional cases like Janaka, Lord Krishna and Macus Aureline, Philosophers have never been kings and kings have never been philosophers. But here is an example during our own times of a Philosopher president. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan not only a philosopher but also a writer of repute, a scholar par-excellence, an orator with gift of the gab, an original thinkers, an educationist, a spiritualists, a creative genius and briefly speaking a superman in the terminology of Aurobindo. As a philosopher he was equally an authority in Western and Eastern thought. Among the modern thinkers he is an authority of the modern world on religion, culture and philosophy.

DR. S. RADHAKRISHNAN- HIS LIFE AND WORK

            Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was born on September 5, 1888 Tirattani of Madras, presidency in a Telugu Brahman family. He obtained his M.A. degree in philosophy at the age of 21 in 1909. He served as a teacher in the Presidency College, Madras, from 1909 to 1917. Here he earned a very high reputation as a teacher of the most difficult problems of philosophy. After this he served for a year of the Arts College, Rajamundry and then was appointed a professor of philosophy in the University of Mysore where he remained till 1921. At Mysore be wrote his two important books – “The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore” in 1918 and the “Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy” in 1920. The latter book made him famous in the world of Philosophy.

            In 1921 Sir Aushutosh Mukherjee appointed Radhakrishnan the King George V Professor of Philosophy at the Calcutta University. He held this post for about 20 years and during this period with the permission of the Calcutta University authorities he served as a professor of comparative Religion in Manchester college of Oxford, as the Vice – Chancellor of the Andra University and as Splading professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics again at Oxford. In 1923, Radhakrishnan produced the first volume of this famous ‘Indian Philosophy’. In this book are surveys the philosophy of Vedas and the Upanishads, Bhagavasgita, Realism of the Jainism, Idealism of the Buddha and Buddhistic philosophy. In 1927, he produced the second volume of this book wherein he has described the six systems of Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya Yoga, Mimansa, Vedanta, Vaishnava, Shaiva and Shakta systems of theism.

            In 1926 Radhakrishnan delivered a series of Upton Lectures on philosophy at the Manchester College of Oxford. These lectures were published under the title “The Hindu View of Life”. This book was translated into many Indian and Foreign languages. This book made Radhakrishnan very famous. In 1929 he delivered in two series of lectures which were later published with titles “East and West in Religion” and “The Ideal View of Life”. It is in the latter book that Radhakrishnan has given his original contribution to the religious thought of the present age. In 1939 Radhakrishnan accepted the Vice-Chancellorship of the Banaras Hindu University. In this year, he produced two important books under the titles “Eastern Religious and Western Thought” and “Mahatma Gandhi”. The former book explains the Upanishadic Mysticism of India and shows how this mysticism has been a continuous influence of Western thought. Radhakrishnan wrote a long introduction to “Mahatma Gandhi”, which was presented to Gandhiji on his seventieth birthday. The other books by Radhakrishnan are ‘The Religion, We Need’, ‘Kalki’ or ‘the future of civilization’, ‘The Heart of Hindustan’, and Freedom and culture. Radhakrishnan has been invited by various countries of the world to lecture on topics concerning religion, culture and philosophy.

            In the independent India he was appointed the ambassador to the U.S.S.R. He was made the Chairman of the University Commission appointed in 1948 to examine the working of the various universities in the working of suggest remedies for reforms. In 1950 he was elected to the high office of Vice –President of his country and in 1962 the nation honoured him by electing him the president of India. He held this highest office till 1967 when he retired to devote his time to philosophical pursuits. At the ripe age 06 85 years, he left this world on April 17, 1975 for his heavenly abode.

RADHAKRISHNAN’S PHILOSOPHY

            According to Dr. Radhakrishnan, Philosophy is avoiding terms that includes logic, ethics, aesthetics, social philosophy and metaphysics. Metaphysics which is concerned with the ultimate nature of things is comprised of two main fields, oncology and epistemology. Science studies the different facts of experience, while philosophy develops the meaning and explanation of experience as a whole. Philosophy has two sides to it, an explanatory and a descriptive, a metaphysical and an empirical. Philosophy studies experience in a concrete form and reveals of the order and being of experience itself. It is a sustained attempt to understand the universe as a whole, if coordinates and interprets all significant aspects of experience the reports of scientists, the intuitions of the artists and the insights of saints. Any coherent Philosophy should take into account observed data, rational reflection and intuitive and insight, since human consciousness consists of the perceptual, the logical and intuitive awareness.

RADHAKRISHNAN’S EDUCATIONAL IEAS AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Dr. Radhakrishnan defines education as the instrument for social, economic and cultural change. For social and national integration, for increasing productively, education should be properly utilized. “The importance of education is not only in knowledge and skill, but it is to help us to live with others.”

Radhakrishnan wants that for realizing the aim of education is to bring nearer to God. In this aim one should study the various aspects of education. Through education Radhakrishnan wants to establish a classless society in order to bring equality between man and man. He wants that education should develop universal brotherhood. The most important aim of education is to help us to see the other world, the invisible and intangible world beyond space and time. Education has to give us a second birth, to help us to realize what we have already in us. “The meaning of education is to emancipate the individual and we need the education of the whole man – physical, vital, mental, intellectual and spiritual”. Education should enable one to imbibe attitude of simple living and high thinking. Radhakrishnan has attached great importance to spiritual education. He thinks that education which does not inculcate spiritual feelings in students is not true. Without a spiritual bent of mind, the physical and intellectual development of a person remains stunted. This situation is detrimental to the progress of mankind.

A satisfactory system of education aims at a balanced growth of the individual and insists on knowledge and wisdom. It should train the intellect, and furthermore, wisdom can be gained by the study of literature, philosophy and religion that interpret the higher laws of the universe. Education should develop in the minds of the students a love of sustained thinking, adherence to truth and the power of resistance to popular sentiments and mob passion.

THE NATURE OF CURRICULUM

            Radhakrishnan has defined his concept of curriculum in his university commission report published in 1949. He wants that a student should study a number of subjects such as philosophy, literature, science, ethics, politics, theology, geography, history, agriculture, natural science, economics, human science and civics. In the curriculum for women, Radhakrishnan wants to include some subjects which may be particularly useful for their specific duties in life. They should also be given education in home science, cooking, fine arts, ethics and religion. Thus Radhakrishnan wants that curriculum must be related to one’s life.

METHODS OF TEACHING

            Radhakrishnan attaches great importance to observation, experiments and the relationship of nature and society in the method of teaching. He is of the view that teaching of moral values should be through real and living examples. He wants that the student should come close to society and nature in order to understand the same. In learning industrial subjects he recommends the use of imitation method. He thinks that man through regular practice in the Yoga and Meditation may be helped in reaching his goal. He also accepts the importance of internal knowledge for experience in different subjects.   

INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OR RADHAKRISHNAN COMMISSION (1948 -1949)

            Inter –university board of education and central advisory board of education recommended to Government of India that an All India Commission of Education should be appointed to inquire into the requirements of the higher education in India and put forward commendations for re-organization of the University Education in the light of requirements of the country and its traditions. On November 4, 1948 the Government of India appointed university education commission with Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan as chairman. Hence, it is also known as ‘Radhakrishnan Commission’. There were 10 member of the commission.

AIM OF APPOINTMENT

            The commission was appointed, to report on Indian University Education and suggest improvements and extensions that may be desirable to suit present and future requirements of the country.

TERMS OF REFERENCE

            The terms of reference of the commission were ways and means for the improvement and re-organization of the University Education, problems of the teachers, curricula, medium of instruction, religious education problem of discipline, health and residence of the students and such allied problems in the perspective of the national an international conditions.

METHOD OF STUDY

The commission made a thorough study of the problems of Higher Education in India. It toured the country extensively.

It prepared a questionnaire which was sent out to about 600 persons who mattered in the field of education. It interviewed administrators, organizations of the students and other educationist. Thus it tried to gather information in regard to almost all the aspects to university education. Its report runs into two volumes.   The first part of the report contains 18 chapters and about 747 pages. The second volume contains the statistics in regard to institutions and other educational problems and the evidence tendered by the witness examined by the commission.

importance of science education as a teaching subject

What is importance of science education as a teaching subject?

Science, as a subject is universal and knows no boundaries. The claims of Science for inclusion in the school curriculum came to be recognized after years of active and persistent efforts. Science almost revolutionaries human life and proved indispensable for existence of man.

Now, supremacy of Science has been established in every field. In fact, so great is its importance for man and society that the present day people live in an "age of science". No one perhaps needs an explanation at present to include science in the school curriculum, Canon, Wilson, a famous educationist in 1867, in support of inclusion of science as a School subject wrote", "Science teaches what evidence is, what proof is.

English, History, Geography, Classics etc. are taught because they provide a liberal education. The main object of imparting education is to turn out intelligent citizens able to appreciate and enjoy the beauty and wonder of Nature.

They should be efficient in all walks of life and should take delight in the wealth of culture of past generations and civilizations. Hence, Science should form an essential part of the curriculum as it is the only subject which affords knowledge of certain facts and laws and helps in achieving the main object of education."

The following are the arguments in favor of General Science to be placed in School Curriculum:

1. Science provides unique training in observation and reasoning. Science students reason from definitely ascertained facts and form clear concepts. It makes one systematic and enables him to form an objective judgment.

2. The discoveries have added to the prosperity of human race with vast increase of knowledge. Herbert Spencer in his, "What Knowledge is of Most Worth" gives information which study of Science furnishes. According to him, Science learning is incomparably more useful for our guidance in life. Other chief subjects too provide an intellectual training not inferior to that of Science. Practically, we live in a world of scientific discoveries. So science education cannot be neglected.

3. Prof. H.E. Armstrong says that Science is taught to provide training in and knowledge of Scientific method, which is useful in the life pursuits. So this needs a School base of Science education.

4. Science has its cultural value. It has a literature of its own. The Scientific discoveries of Galileo, Newton, Faraday, Darwin, Pasteur, Kelvin, Bose, Armstrong and others are treasures of mankind. So, Science has won the first rank of humanistic studies.

5. Science has utilitarian value. It trains child to use his leisure properly. These are clearly illustrated in scientific hobbies.

6. Modern knowledge of Science provides great intellectual pleasure. An educated person is under very great disadvantage if he is not familiar with that knowledge.

7. Knowledge of the methods of observation and experiment in the different branches of Science helps pupils to develop a logical mind, a critical judgment and a capacity for methodical organization.

8. Science is useful in that it remedies some of the defects of the ordinary school education. It is found to be the most valuable element in the education of those who show special aptitude. Science provides discipline of mind.

sustainable development

Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) have been recognized as being critical to the achievement of sustainable development. Their importance first emerged at the Earth Summit (Rio, 1992) and was emphasized more recently at the Rio+20 Conference, highlighting “the relevance of access by all countries to environmentally sound technologies, new knowledge, know-how and expertise.”

To follow up on the Rio+20 call, the President of the UN General Assembly organized four workshops in 2014, the Structured Dialogues for a Technology Facilitation Mechanism, and appointed Switzerland and Brazil as co-moderators to facilitate discussions and help orient the way forward.

The Addis Ababa Accord zero draft builds on the recommendations of the Structured Dialogues and supports three main aspects of technology policy: domestic development of national science, technology and innovation strategies; international collaboration relating to financial and technology facilitation to complement national efforts; and options to address financing gaps in innovation.

Mr. Conceição explained that while a process is in place to explore how to adequately integrate science, technology and innovation into the SDG agenda in a way that is responsive to the needs of developing countries, there has yet to be an agreement on the establishment of a global mechanism for technology facilitation and what it would do.

Moreover, notwithstanding the recognition of the centrality of STI for sustainable development, current flows of technology transfer fall short in meeting the needs of developing countries. While STI can catalyze sustainable economic growth, in order to meet the transformational potential of the SDGs, significant progress will be needed in technology development, transfer and dissemination at the international level.

Contrary to the MDG agenda, which focused on what the North could do for the South, the agenda now has a universal approach. Equity is at the core of the new development agenda as well as the UN Climate Convention, and Member States and Parties have the responsibility to uphold this tenet.

In this sense, technology facilitation is not only about acquiring technology but also about investing in developing countries to enable them to design, produce and implement their own science, technologies and innovations for sustainable development with the possibility of South-South and North-South cooperation.  STI should be fully integrated into international and national sustainable development strategies and accompanied by a framework of investments stemming from both the public and private sector.

Technology and science have enormous potential to catalyze change, but need to be applied responsibly with the interest of the public good in mind. The push to increase technology development and funding needs to be accompanied with an increase in transparency and accountability to understand who benefits from any possible change.  Without adequate accountability and transparency, there is a risk of leaving the power in the hands of those who have the information which tend to be developed countries and their investors, rather than the intended beneficiaries.

Mr. Conceição suggested that an eventual technology facilitation mechanism within the UN could identify, disseminate and scale-up existing initiatives – emerging from citizens, communities, the public and private sector – and contribute to the implementation of the SDGs. This would imply including potential contributions from universities, research institutes, civil society organizations, cooperatives, private companies, philanthropists and investors.

He explained that a technology facilitation mechanism could also benefit from the dissemination and development of technologies from the UN.  He made clear that investment in STI will require both domestic resource mobilization as well as investments from international public funds directed at research and development that extends beyond the commercial arena, to comprise a global public good for a more sustainable future.

As a final remark, he noted that the UN development system will be a key partner in implementation of the post-2015 sustainable development agenda and stressed that the UNDP’s commitment to sustainable development has never been stronger. The UNDP will support its partners at the national and international level to devise country-led development strategies and identify the most appropriate financing strategies for those efforts

Great indian scientists in the field of physical and biological sciences

Sir CV Raman

Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was born at Tiruchirappalli in Southern India on November 7th, 1888. His father was a lecturer in mathematics and physics so that from the first he was immersed in an academic atmosphere. He entered Presidency College, Madras, in 1902, and in 1904 passed his B.A. examination, winning the first place and the gold medal in physics; in 1907 he gained his M.A. degree, obtaining the highest distinctions.

His earliest researches in optics and acoustics - the two fields of investigation to which he has dedicated his entire career - were carried out while he was a student.

Since at that time a scientific career did not appear to present the best possibilities, Raman joined the Indian Finance Department in 1907; though the duties of his office took most of his time, Raman found opportunities for carrying on experimental research in the laboratory of the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science at Calcutta (of which he became Honorary Secretary in 1919).

In 1917 he was offered the newly endowed Palit Chair of Physics at Calcutta University, and decided to accept it. After 15 years at Calcutta he became Professor at the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore (1933-1948), and since 1948 he is Director of the Raman Institute of Research at Bangalore, established and endowed by himself. He also founded the Indian Journal of Physics in 1926, of which he is the Editor. Raman sponsored the establishment of the Indian Academy of Sciences and has served as President since its inception. He also initiated the Proceedings of that academy, in which much of his work has been published, and is President of the Current Science Association, Bangalore, which publishes Current Science (India).

Some of Raman's early memoirs appeared as Bulletins of the Indian Associationfor the Cultivation of Science (Bull. 6 and 11, dealing with the "Maintenance of Vibrations"; Bull. 15, 1918, dealing with the theory of the musical instruments of the violin family). He contributed an article on the theory of musical instruments to the 8th Volume of the Handbuch der Physik, 1928. In 1922 he published his work on the "Molecular Diffraction of Light", the first of a series of investigations with his collaborators which ultimately led to his discovery, on the 28th of February, 1928, of the radiation effect which bears his name ("A new radiation", Indian J. Phys., 2 (1928) 387), and which gained him the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Other investigations carried out by Raman were: his experimental and theoretical studies on the diffraction of light by acoustic waves of ultrasonic and hypersonic frequencies (published 1934-1942), and those on the effects produced by X-rays on infrared vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary light. In 1948 Raman, through studying the spectroscopic behaviour of crystals, approached in a new manner fundamental problems of crystal dynamics. His laboratory has been dealing with the structure and properties of diamond, the structure and optical behaviour of numerous iridescent substances (labradorite, pearly felspar, agate, opal, and pearls).

Among his other interests have been the optics of colloids, electrical and magnetic anisotropy, and the physiology of human vision.

Raman has been honoured with a large number of honorary doctorates and memberships of scientific societies. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society early in his career (1924), and was knighted in 1929.

APJ Abdul Kalam 

Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam was a Missile Man of India. He is popularly known as the People’s President of India. His full name was Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam. He was a great scientist and 11th President of India. He was born in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, in a poor Tamil Muslim family on 15th of October in 1931 to the Jainulabudeen and Ashiamma. He started supporting his family financially in his early age. He has completed his graduation from the St Joseph’s College, Tiruchirappalli in 1954 and Aerospace Engineering from the Madras Institute of Technology, Chennai in 1960.

He joined the DRDO (Defense Research and Development Organization) as a scientist where he designed a small helicopter for the Indian Army. He also worked under Dr. Vikram Sarabhai as part of INCOSPAR committee. Later, he joined the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) in 1969 as project director of India’s first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III). Because of his great contributions for the development of ballistic missiles in India, he will be forever known as the “Missile Man of India”. The successful Pokhran-II nuclear tests of 1998 have also involved his important role.

He has been the third President of India who awarded with the Bharat Ratna (first Dr. Sarvapali Radhakrishnan 1954 and second Dr. Zakir Hussain 1963). He has also been awarded with the Padma Bhushan in 1981 and Padma Vibhushan in 1990 for his contributions at ISRO and DRDO as well as the Government of India as a scientific advisor. He has written many books such as Wings of Fire, Ignited Minds, Target 3 Billion in 2011, Turning Points, India 2020, My Journey, etc.

Sir G Madhavan nair

Shri G Madhavan Nair was born on October 31,1943 in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. He graduated in Engineering from Kerala University in 1966 and underwent training at Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), Bombay.

He joined Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in 1967. Since then, he has held various positions posting illustrious milestones on his way to the position of Chairman ISRO. During his tenure of six years as Chairman, ISRO/Secretary, DOS, 25 successful missions were accomplished i.e.,

INSAT-3E, RESOURCESAT-1, EDUSAT, CARTOSAT-1, HAMSAT-1, INSAT-4A, PSLV-C5, GSLV-F1, PSLV-C6, CARTOSAT-2, INSAT-4B, SRE-1, PSLV-C7, PSLV-C8, GSLV-F04, INSAT-4CR, PSLV-C10, CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1, PSLV-C9, CHANDRAYAAN-1, PSLV-C11, PSLV-12, PSLV-C14 and OCEANSAT-2.

He has taken initiatives towards development of futuristic technologies to enhance the space systems capabilities as well as to reduce the cost of access to space. He has given major thrust for evolving application programmes such as tele-education and telemedicine for meeting the needs of society at large.

As on today, more than 31,000 classrooms have been connected under the EDUSAT network and telemedicine is extended to 315 hospitals - 269 in remote/rural/district hospitals including 10 mobile units and 46 super speciality hospitals.

He has initiated schemes for Village Resource Centres through satellite connectivity which aims at improving the quality of life of the poor people in the villages. More than 430 VRCs are facilitating access to spatial information on important aspects like land use/land cover, soil and ground water prospects and enable the farmers in taking important decisions based on their query.

VRCs also enable online interaction between the local farmers and agricultural scientists. It also provides information of many governmental schemes, farming system, action plans based on weather, community specific advice on soil and water conservation, etc.

In his tenure as the Director of the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre from 1995-99, India's efforts towards indigenous development of cryogenic technology took concrete shape and vital infrastructures were built and critical technologies were developed.

In his role as the Director of VSSC from 1999 till he took over the present position, Shri G.Madhavan Nair led VSSC, the largest Centre of ISRO with about six thousand employees working in various engineering and scientific disciplines towards the development of India's Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle - GSLV capable of orbiting 2000 kg class of satellite into Geo Transfer Orbit, which had its successful flight in the very first attempt, and declared operational after its successful flight in 2003.

He was also responsible for charting the road map for future development of ISRO's activities, especially in the launch vehicle area targeting low cost access to space.

Shri G Madhavan Nair as Chairman, Space Commission is responsible for chalking out the future plan for space research in the country. Major thrust are in scientific exploration of outer space using the ASTROSAT and Chandrayaan (moon) missions apart from implementing schemes for telemedicine, tele-education and disaster management support systems.

He is also providing guidance and leadership in undertaking new technology developments related to launch vehicle, spacecrafts for communication, remote sensing and applications programmes to meet societal needs.

In the international arena, Mr Madhavan Nair has led the Indian delegations for bilateral cooperation and negotiations with many Space Agencies and Countries, specially with France, Russia, Brazil, Israel, etc., and has been instrumental in working out mutually beneficial international cooperative agreements.

Shri G Madhavan Nair has led the Indian delegation to the S&T Sub-Committee of United Nations Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN-COPUOS) since 1998.

Shri G Madhavan Nair's focus has always been to achieve self-reliance in the high technology areas and to bring the benefits of space technology to the national development, specially targeting the needs of the rural and poor sections of the society.

P.C.Ray

Prafulla Chandra was born on 2 August 1861 in Raruli-Katipara, a village in the District of Khulna (in present day Bangladesh). His early education started in his village school. He often played truant and spent histime resting comfortably on the branch of a tree, hidden under its leaves. After attending the village school, he went to Kolkata, where he studied at Hare School and the Metropolitan College. The lectures of Alexander Pedler in the Presidency College, which he used to attend, attracted him to chemistry, although his first love was literature. He continued to take interest in literature, and taught himself Latin and French at home. After obtaining a F.A. diploma from the University of Calcutta, he proceeded to the University of Edinburgh on a Gilchrist scholarship where he obtained both his B.Sc. and D.Sc. degrees.

In 1888, Prafulla Chandra made his journey home to India. Initially he spent a year working with his famous friend Jagadish Chandra Bose in his laboratory. In 1889, Prafulla Chandra was appointed an Assistant Professor of Chemistry in the Presidency College, Kolkata. His publications on mercurous nitrite and its derivatives brought him recognition from all over the world. Equally important was his role as a teacher - he inspired a generation of young chemists in India thereby building up an Indian school of chemistry. Famous Indian scientists like Meghnad Saha and Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar were among his students.

Prafulla Chandra believed that the progress of India could be achieved only by industrialization. He set up the first chemical factory in India, with very minimal resources, working from his home. In 1901, this pioneering effort resulted in the formation of the Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works Ltd.

He retired from the Presidency College in 1916, and was appointed as Professor of Chemistry at the University Science College. In 1921 when Prafulla Chandra reached 60 years, he donated, in advance, all his salary for the rest of his service in the University to the development of the Department of Chemistry and to the creation of two research fellowships. The value of this endowment was about two lakh rupees. He eventually retired at the age of 75. In Prafulla Chandra Ray, the qualities of both a scientist and an industrial entrepreneur were combined and he can be thought of as the father of the Indian Pharmaceutical industry.

Meghnad Saha

Mechnad Saha was born on October 6, 1893 at Seoratali village in Dacca, now in Bangladesh. His father Jagannath Saha was a small shopkeeper. The name of his mother was Bhubaneshwari Devi. He was the youngest of the five children in the family.

Sahas were poor and so Meghnad’s school education was not smooth and trouble free. Meghnad was admitted to a school which was about 7 miles away from his house. Later he joined Government Collegiate School in Dacca. He had secured a scholarship on account of securing first division in the whole of the district of Dacca. He passed the entrance examination of the Calcutta University in 1909 and secured first division.

Meghnad was an intelligent and hardworking student and very good in mathematics. He was equally skilled in languages. In 1911 he passed the Intermediate Examination securing excellent marks in chemistry and mathematics.

Then he joined the Presidency College, Calcutta for higher studies. Here some of his colleagues and classmates were such as to become famous in the world of science and learning. Some of his teachers were also among the well-known persons, and they included Acharya PC. Ray, J.C Bose and D.N. Mallik. He passed B.Sc. in 1913 and M.Sc. in 1915 with honours.

He devoted himself to the study and research in physics and applied mathematics. He had to take up private tuitions to support himself and his younger brother who lived with him in Calcutta.

A new University College of Science for post- graduation studies was opened under the dynamic leadership of Calcutta University’s Vice-Chanceller Ashutosh Mukharjee. Meghnad was appointed lecturer in this college. In 1918 C.V. Raman joined this institution as Palit Professor of Physics

He was in-charge of the Heat Laboratory there. He continued his studies in thermodynamics and spectroscopy besides astrophysics. He became deeply interested in Einstein’s theory of relativity and prepared an English translation of Einstein’s papers jointly with S.N. Bose and published them in a book- form.

Meghnad Saha wrote many papers and got them published in reputed magazines and periodicals. He obtained his D.Sc. degree in 1918 from the Calcutta University. His theory of high-temperature ionization and its application to stellar atmosphere made him renowned all over the world.

He toured Europe to lecture on his theory of thermal ionization which introduced an epoch-making theory in astrophysics. In London he worked in the laboratory of Fowler for 5 months and then went to Berlin.

In 1921 he returned to Calcutta and joined the Calcutta University as Professor of Physics but later moved to the Allahabad University as Professor and Head of Physics Department

There he stayed for 15 years. He became instrumental in organizing research in many subjects in the University. He presided over the Physics and Mathematics Section of the Indian Science Congress Association in 1926. In 1927 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London at the young age of 34.

In 1936 Saha was offered the Palit Chair in Physics at the University of Calcutta. He occupied this chair for 15 years and then retired in 1953 at the age of 60. He continued his research at Calcutta University. Realizing the increasing importance of nuclear physics in the field of country’s scientific and industrial progress, the Institute of Nuclear Physics was set up in 1948 in the Calcutta University.

He also took great care of the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, the oldest of its kind in the country. It was in the laboratory of this institution that the “Raman Effect” was discovered. First he was elected the Honorary Secretary in 1944 and then President of this Association in 1946.

In 1952 Saha became its full time Director. He also wrote extensively on the recurring problems of floods in India and suggested ways and means to control them by harvesting river waters properly. He also underlined the importance of setting up a River Research Laboratory.

He took great interest in flood relief measures as well. As a result of his initiative the Damodor Valley Project was set up besides the River Research Institute. He also remained the first President (1932—1934) of National Academy of Science, Allahabad and then of the National Institute of Science (1937—1939).

He occupied many more prestigious positions in the other national institutes like Indian Council of Scientific Research, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal etc. He was elected in 1951 to the Indian Parliament. But unfortunately, he did not keep good health during the last years of his life and finally he breathed his last on February 16, 1956.

Saha’s life story has been a story of scientific progress in India during these years. He would always remain a rich source of inspiration to Indian scientists and students. His life and works are a great example of dedication, hard work and research in the fields of science, education and nationalism.

Methods teaching science

ATeaching with research based methods increases student engagement and understanding of material. For each teaching method find information about what makes the method effective and a collection of example lessons. 

Conducting Science with Students

The following methods take different approaches to assisting educators in conducting science with students. In some methods, students collect data and analyze it following a series of guided questions. In another, students are made aware of how they can conduct science outside the classroom. Whichever method is used, students learn how scientific knowledge is gained and learn to interpret data.

Indoor Labs - Indoor labs are a staple of K-12 education. This teaching strategy encourages cooperation in small groups and participation in doing science. This resource gives tips for making individuals accountable during group work, making handouts, and structuring lab time
Specific lesson examples are given. 

Process of Science- Teaching the process of science means taking the aspects of how science is conducted and making these ideas explicit for students, allowing them to discover how scientific knowledge is gained. 

Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning - In this approach, groups of students work together through data and questions to discover a scientific concept. A similar resource is titled Classroom Experiments. 

Guided Discovery Problems - Guided Discovery Problems lead students through a progression of questions with supporting diagrams from simple to complex to build student's understanding of a concept as they discover it themselves. 

Campus Based Learning - Campus-based projects can provide hands-on, real-world projects that can be accomplished without a field trip budget or transportation by using buildings and grounds as teaching tools. 

Teaching with Data- Data can be observations, raw data, or processed data and can be collected by or presented to students. Several examples of how data can be used and sources for finding data to present to students are included. A second related resource, Using Data in the Classroom, has information regarding research supporting the use of data in the classroom and nearly 200 lesson examples.

Teaching Students to Write Quantitatively - This resource teaches students how to use and interpret data in their writing. Assignments are presented that utilize a variety of formats ranging from formal essays to informal reports and posters. 

Group Work Methods

Group work is a way of getting students to work together to solve a problem or learn new information. By using group work, educators teach students how to learn from one another's ideas. Since scientists do not work in isolation, using group work in a structured way can teach students skills in collaboration and accountability, similar to skills scientists must have.

Cooperative Learning - Cooperative Learning involves structuring classes around small groups that work together so that each group member's success is dependent on the group's success. 

Jigsaws - In a jigsaw, teams of students prepare separate but related assignments. Teams regroup and peers then teach each other about their prepared portion of the learning. 

Gallery Walks - In a Gallery Walk, questions are posted at stations around the room. Teams of students rotate around the classroom, composing answers to questions while reflecting upon the answers given by other groups. 

Innovative Methods for Application and Analysis

Students ability to respond to higher order questioning demonstrates the degree to which they understand a particular topic. In the following methods, students are required to justify answers, apply information, or analyze ideas. These methods are very useful for eliciting student's understanding of what they have been taught and also for identifying any remaining misconceptions students may hold.

Direct Measurement Videos - These short, high-quality videos of real events that students can use to explore and apply physics concepts. The videos can be used for labs, homework, assessments, or open-ended problems. Several of the videos are paired withclassroom-ready activities that integrate videos into the introductory mechanics curriculum. What sets these videos apart from others is that students can measure distances, time, angles, and other variables right from the videos, allowing for a wide variety of quantitative and theoretical exploration. 

Documented Problem Solving- This process requires students to record their thought process as they solve a problem. Instead of simply presenting a solution, students must explain their reasoning for arriving at their solution. 

Game Based Learning - In game based learning, students compete to learn material. Included in this resource are tips for making a meaningful game, making rules fair, and grading. 

Interactive Lecture Demonstrations- This resource provides formatting for scaffolding learning from demonstrations. Students predict an outcome, observe the demonstration and reflect on their previous assumptions of the outcome. 

Socratic Questioning - Educators present thoughtful questions for students to discuss which cause them to think critically about a topic or issue. The educator then requires students to justify their responses. 

Experience based Environmental projects - Experience-based environmental projects offer a way for students to apply classroom topics like energy use, global warming, water quality and land use to their own lives, and to realize that although these issues may be global or regional, they ultimately have roots at the individual level. 

Civic Engagement and Service Learning - Connecting students with community members to conduct science in areas similar to what you are teaching in the classroom can be a very powerful lesson to students that what they are learning is relevant and useful to their future careers and lives as informed citizens. This resource provides more information about this approach and offers many examples you can use in your class.

Service Learning - When students link a learning project with community service, they are conducting service learning. This resource presents information on why service learning is valuable, tips on how to start a service learning component in your classroom, and how to assess students' learning and get students to reflect on their work. 

Making Lecture Interactive

Interactive Lecture Demonstrations- This resource provides formatting for scaffolding learning from demonstrations. Students predict an outcome, observe the demonstration and reflect on their previous assumptions of the outcome. 

Lecture Tutorials - This resource offers suggestions and rationale for creating worksheets for students to complete as they listen to lecture presentations. These worksheets make lectures more interactive and help students understand what information is most important from lectures. 

Teaching in Urban Settings

Teaching Urban Students - Urban students may experience the natural world differently than students from rural backgrounds. Urban students also may have cultural and ethnic backgrounds that may benefit from teaching in non-traditional ways. This resource presents methods for engaging urban students in science classes.