Concept attainment model

Concept learning, also known as category learning, concept attainment, and concept formation, is defined by Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin (1967) as "the search for and listing of attributes that can be used to distinguish exemplars from non exemplars of various categories". More simply put, concepts are the mental categories that help us classify objects, events, or ideas, building on the understanding that each object, event, or idea has a set of common relevant features. Thus, concept learning is a strategy which requires a learner to compare and contrast groups or categories that contain concept-relevant features with groups or categories that do not contain concept-relevant features.

Concept learning also refers to a learning task in which a human or machine learner is trained to classify objects by being shown a set of example objects along with their class labels. The learner simplifies what has been observed by condensing it in the form of an example. This simplified version of what has been learned is then applied to future examples. Concept learning may be simple or complex because learning takes place over many areas. When a concept is difficult, it is less likely that the learner will be able to simplify, and therefore will be less likely to learn. Colloquially, the task is known as learning from examples. Most theories of concept learning are based on the storage of exemplars and avoid summarization or overt abstraction of any kind.

Concept Learning: Inferring a Boolean-valued function from training examples of its input and output.
A concept is an idea of something formed by combining all its features or attributes which construct the given concept. Every concept has two components:
Attributes: features that one must look for to decide whether a data instance is a positive one of the concept.
A rule: denotes what conjunction of constraints on the attributes will qualify as a positive instance of the concept.

Deductive method

Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, logical deduction is the process of reasoning  from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion.

Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditionals, and links premises with conclusions. If all premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is necessarily true.

Deductive reasoning (top-down logic) contrasts with inductive reasoning (bottom-up logic) in the following way: In deductive reasoning, a conclusion is reached reductively  by applying general rules that hold over the entirety of a closed domain of discourse, narrowing the range under consideration until only the conclusion(s) is left. In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is reached by generalizing or extrapolating from specific cases to general rules, i.e., there is epistemic uncertainty. However, the inductive reasoning mentioned here is not the same as induction  used in mathematical proofs – mathematical induction is actually a form of deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning differs from abductive reasoning by the direction of the reasoning relative to the conditionals. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditionals, whereas abductive reasoning goes in the opposite direction to that of the conditionals.

Technology integrated taxonomy

Creating authentic learning experiences for students is an essential element in online course delivery.  Through recent discussion instructors have inquired “How do we provide meaningful learning experiences for students using tools that are intrinsically motivating?” Questions as such imply the need to provide instructors with “. . . innovative ways of integrating technology that encourage higher-order thinking skills.” Research indicates that “Today’s students, regardless of demographics, have shown an interest in digital opportunities to learn, and the range of Web 2.0 tools that make collaboration, innovation, and individual exploration possible is incredible.”

Practitioners within the field of education have thought of unique ways to connect digital tools with the framework of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy, which has led to the emergence of a Digital Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy

The purpose of Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy is to inform instructors of how to use technology and digital tools to facilitate student learning experiences and outcomes.  It aims, “To expand upon the skills associated with each level as technology becomes a more ingrained essential part of learning.” 1  The use of this adapted version and the examples of tools it provides focus “should not be on the tools themselves, but rather on how the tools can act as vehicles for transforming student thinking at different levels.” 1  Outlined below are the levels featured within Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy.  Each level is accompanied by a description of its relevance and examples of digital tools that connect with this taxonomy framework.


Infographic Credit: Ron Carranza

Creating –To produce new or original work.  Tools – Animating, blogging, filming, podcasting, publishing, simulating, wiki building, video blogging, programming, directing

Evaluating – To justify a stand or decision; to make judgements based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.  Tools – Grading, networking, rating, testing, reflecting, reviewing, blog commenting, posting, moderating

Analyzing – To draw connections among ideas, concepts, or determining how each part interrelate to an overall structure or purpose.  Tools – Mashing, mind mapping, surveying, linking, validating

Applying – To use information in new situations such as models, diagrams, or presentations.  Tools – Calculating, Charting, editing, hacking, presenting, uploading, operating, sharing with a group

Understanding – To explain ideas, concepts, or construct meaning from written material or graphics.  Tools – Advanced searching, annotating, blog journaling, tweeting, tagging, commenting, subscribing

Remembering – To recall facts, basic concepts, or retrieval of material.  Tools – Bookmarking, copying, googling, bullet-pointing, highlighting, group networking, searching

Summary

Connecting characteristics of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy is necessary for creating online learning activities that are in accordance with our students’ needs.  “Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy helps us navigate through the myriad digital tools and make choices based on the kinds of learning experiences we want students to engage in.” Selecting the most appropriate digital activity will depend on the activity’s level of difficulty tied to the cognitive levels stated within Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy.  As K. A. Meyer writes, “Knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used.  In this way, we can begin to ascertain differences that will help instructors apply the right tool to the right learning goals.” 

Inductive method

Inductive reasoning (as opposed to deductive reasoning or abductive reasoning) is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying strong evidence for the truth of the conclusion. While the conclusion of a deductive argument is certain, the truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument may be probable, based upon the evidence given.
Many dictionaries define inductive reasoning as the derivation of general principles from specific observations, though some sources disagree with this usage.
The philosophical definition of inductive reasoning is more nuanceud than simple progression from particular/individual instances to broader generalizations. Rather, the premises of an inductive logical argument  indicate some degree of support (inductive probability) for the conclusion but do not entail it; that is, they suggest truth but do not ensure it. In this manner, there is the possibility of moving from general statements to individual instances

Lecture Method of Teaching

A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used by teachers to enable student learning. These strategies are determined partly on subject matter to be taught and partly by the nature of the learner. For a particular teaching method to be appropriate and efficient it has to be in relation with the characteristic of the learner and the type of learning it is supposed to bring about. Suggestions are there to design and selection of teaching methods must take into account not only the nature of the subject matter but also how students learn. In today’s school the trend is that it encourages a lot of creativity. It is a known fact that human advancement comes through reasoning. This reasoning and original thought enhances creativity.

The lecture method is just one of several teaching methods, though in schools it’s usually considered the primary one. The lecture method is convenient for the institution and cost-efficient, especially with larger classroom sizes. This is why lecturing is the standard for most college courses, when there can be several hundred students in the classroom at once; lecturing lets professors address the most people at once, in the most general manner, while still conveying the information that he or she feels is most important, according to the lesson plan. While the lecture method gives the instructor or teacher chances to expose students to unpublished or not readily available material, the students plays a passive role which may hinder learning. While this method facilitates large-class communication, the lecturer must make constant and conscious effort to become aware of student problems and engage the students to give verbal feedback. It can be used to arouse interest in a subject provided the instructor has effective writing and speaking skills

The approaches for teaching can be broadly classified into teacher centered and student centered. In Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning, Teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as “empty vessels” whose primary role is to passively receive information (via lectures and direct instruction) with an end goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this model, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments. In Student-Centered Approach to Learning, while teachers are the authority figure in this model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process. The teacher’s primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material. Student learning is measured through both formal and informal forms of assessment, including group projects, student portfolios, and class participation. Teaching and assessments are connected; student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction.Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or combinations of these.

Revised blooms taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy – New Version

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification system for levels of cognitive skills and learning behavior. The classification system they created is often referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy. The word taxonomy means classifications or structures. Bloom’s Taxonomy classifies thinking according to six cognitive levels of complexity

Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation


The categories are ordered from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. The classification is often referenced as a progressive climb to a higher level of thinking with the highest level being “evaluation.”


The basic or lowest level in the taxonomy deals with simple knowledge acquisition. At this level, people simply memorize, recall, list, and repeat information. The cognitive complexity grows at every level. At the highest levels, people are able to build a mental structure from diverse elements and are able to put parts together to form a whole, as well as make judgments about the value of ideas

Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised

During the 1990’s, Lorin Anderson and a group of cognitive psychologists updated the taxonomy. The revisions they made appear fairly minor, however, they do have significant impact on how people use the taxonomy. The changes can be divided into three categories: terminology, structure, and emphasis.

Changes to Terminology

The first thing most people recognize is the different terminology. The revised version changes the names of each of the six levels. For example, the lowest level of the original, “knowledge” was renamed and classified as “remembering.” It is also important to note the change from nouns to verbs to describe the different levels of the taxonomy. The names of the major cognitive process categories were changed to indicate action because thinking implies active engagements. Knowledge is an outcome or product of thinking, it is not a form of thinking. Consequently, since the word “knowledge” inaccurately described a category of thinking, it was replaced with the verb “remembering.”

Changes to Structure

The top two levels are essentially swapped from the old to the new version. This revised taxonomy moves the “evaluation” stage down a level and the highest element becomes “creating.” At the second to the highest level of the revised version, people defend, support, justify and evaluate their opinion on this information. And at the highest level, people generate new ideas, create a new product, or construct a new point of view. This change was made because the taxonomy is viewed as a hierarchy reflecting increasing complexity of thinking, and creative thinking (creating level) is considered a more complex form of thinking than critical thinking (evaluating level). A person can evaluate information without being creative, but creative thinking requires some level of evaluation or critical thinking (i.e. you need to evaluate the effectiveness of your new idea).

Changes in Emphasis

The revision emphasizes the use of taxonomy as a tool for alignment of curriculum planning, instructional delivery, and assessment. Additionally, the revision is aimed at a broader audience. The original taxonomy was viewed as a tool best applied in the younger grades at school. The revised version is more universal and easily applicable at elementary, secondary, as well as adult training.


The new terms are defined as:

Levels Description
Remembering Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory. This level is simply remembering or recalling previous learned information.
Understanding Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.   This is essentially demonstrating understanding of information by explaining ideas or concepts.
Applying Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing. Basically, this is using the information in another familiar situation.
Analyzing Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.
Evaluating Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing. This includes justifying a decision or course of action.
Creating Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing. This includes generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things.

Applying the Revised Version of Bloom’s Taxonomy

Just like the original taxonomy, the revised version provides a valuable framework for teachers, trainers, and instructional designers to use to focus on higher order thinking. By providing a hierarchy of thinking, both version can help in developing performance tasks, creating questions, or constructing problems.


Understanding

Summarize the main idea of the story.
Draw a picture showing the word’s meaning.
Classify the parts of speech in the sentence given.
Predict what will happen to the object when placed in water.




Applying

Describe how you would use this net to catch fish.
Write a sentence using three new vocabulary words.
Apply the principles of learning to the workshop.
Solve the problem using the concepts given.




Analyzing

Compare how the climate is similar between two counties.
Explain why the main character decided to make the decision she did.
Determine which parts of the bicycle is most important.
Research the best methods of removing stains from clothing.




Evaluating

Explain the best alternative among the three choices.
Determine which character in the stories was the most impacted by the events.
Decide which parts of speech are most valuable to creating a sentence.
Assess the value of the items on the table.




Creating

Invest a device that can pick up small objects.
Create a game that will help students learn vocabulary words.
Write a story that leaves the reader in suspense.
Generate three ideas on how to improve the learning process.










Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised – Action Verbs



The following chart provides action verbs for each level of the revised taxonomy. By creating learning objectives using these action verbs, you indicate explicitly what the learner must do in order to demonstrate learning.





Levels Action Verbs
Remembering arrange, define, find, identify, label, list, match, name, memorize, recall, recite, repeat, state, tell, write
Understanding classify, covert, conclude, demonstrate, describe, discuss, explain, identify, illustrate, locate, paraphrase, predict, recognize, report, select, summarize, translate
Applying apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, modify, operate, produce, select, schedule, sketch, show, solve, use
Analyzing analyze, appraise, categorize, classify, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, outline, research, separate, subdivide, test,
Evaluating appraise, argue, assess, choose, conclude, defend, estimate, evaluate, judge, select, support, value
Creating assemble, construct, create, design, develop, devise, formulate, generate, integrate, invent

Integrated education

The Integrated education movement in Northern Ireland is an attempt to bring together children, parents and teachers from both Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions: the aim being to provide a balanced education, while allowing the opportunity to understand and respect all cultural and religious backgrounds.

KPM HSS SEVENTH WEEK PROGRAMMES

In this week due to midterm examination i assisted the the teacher in charge of examination for setting the question paper and handover the answerscripts for different classes.In this week school school closed for christmas holidays and will reopens on first januvary 2018

KPM HSS SIXTH WEEK PROGRAMMES

On monday our optional teacher completed their third observation.On this week december 12 was study leave for students.Mid term examination starts from 13.12.17 .So this week I helped the teacher in charge of examination for organizing the examination in a smooth manner. After the examination I handed over the answerscripts of different classes to their concerned teachers.

Technology integrated taxonomy

Creating authentic learning experiences for students is an essential element in online course delivery.  Through recent discussion instructors have inquired “How do we provide meaningful learning experiences for students using tools that are intrinsically motivating?” 2  Questions as such imply the need to provide instructors with “. . . innovative ways of integrating technology that encourage higher-order thinking skills.” 2  Research indicates that “Today’s students, regardless of demographics, have shown an interest in digital opportunities to learn, and the range of Web 2.0 tools that make collaboration, innovation, and individual exploration possible is incredible.” 2  Practitioners within the field of education have thought of unique ways to connect digital tools with the framework of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy, which has led to the emergence of a Digital Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy

The purpose of Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy is to inform instructors of how to use technology and digital tools to facilitate student learning experiences and outcomes.  It aims, “To expand upon the skills associated with each level as technology becomes a more ingrained essential part of learning.” 1  The use of this adapted version and the examples of tools it provides focus “should not be on the tools themselves, but rather on how the tools can act as vehicles for transforming student thinking at different levels.” 1  Outlined below are the levels featured within Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy.  Each level is accompanied by a description of its relevance and examples of digital tools that connect with this taxonomy framework.


Creating –To produce new or original work.  Tools – Animating, blogging, filming, podcasting, publishing, simulating, wiki building, video blogging, programming, directing

Evaluating – To justify a stand or decision; to make judgements based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.  Tools – Grading, networking, rating, testing, reflecting, reviewing, blog commenting, posting, moderating

Analyzing – To draw connections among ideas, concepts, or determining how each part interrelate to an overall structure or purpose.  Tools – Mashing, mind mapping, surveying, linking, validating

Applying – To use information in new situations such as models, diagrams, or presentations.  Tools – Calculating, Charting, editing, hacking, presenting, uploading, operating, sharing with a group

Understanding – To explain ideas, concepts, or construct meaning from written material or graphics.  Tools – Advanced searching, annotating, blog journaling, tweeting, tagging, commenting, subscribing

Remembering – To recall facts, basic concepts, or retrieval of material.  Tools – Bookmarking, copying, googling, bullet-pointing, highlighting, group networking, searching

Summary

Connecting characteristics of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy is necessary for creating online learning activities that are in accordance with our students’ needs.  “Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy helps us navigate through the myriad digital tools and make choices based on the kinds of learning experiences we want students to engage in.” 2  Selecting the most appropriate digital activity will depend on the activity’s level of difficulty tied to the cognitive levels stated within Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy.  As K. A. Meyer writes, “Knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used.  In this way, we can begin to ascertain differences that will help instructors apply the right tool to the right learning goals.” 3

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Vitamins

A vitamin is an organic compound and an essential nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the compound in sufficient quantities, and it must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term vitamin is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (one form of vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals. Vitamin D is essential only for people who do not have adequate skin exposure to sunlight, as ultraviolet light promotes synthesis in skin cells. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems,but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity, Art. 2). Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the (related) fields of bioengineering, biomedical engineering, biomanufacturing, molecular engineering, etc.

For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production, and medicine.[2] The term is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Károly Ereky. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, biotechnology has expanded to include new and diverse sciences such as genomics, recombinant gene techniques, applied immunology, and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests.

Library

A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical building or room, or a virtual space, or both.A library's collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs, e-books, audiobooks, databases, and other formats. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items. In Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothēkē  (Greek: βιβλιοθήκη): derivatives of these mean library in many modern languages, e.g. French bibliothèque.

PlantTissue culture

Plant tissue culture is a collection of techniques used to maintain or grow plant cells, tissues or organs under sterile conditions on a nutrient culture medium of known composition. Plant tissue culture is widely used to produce clones of a plant in a method known as micropropagation.

The production of exact copies of plants that produce particularly good flowers, fruits, or have other desirable traits.
To quickly produce mature plants.
The production of multiples of plants in the absence of seeds or necessary pollinators to produce seeds.
The regeneration of whole plants from plant cells that have been genetically modified.
The production of plants in sterile containers that allows them to be moved with greatly reduced chances of transmitting diseases, pests, and pathogens.
The production of plants from seeds that otherwise have very low chances of germinating and growing, i.e.: orchids and Nepenthes.
To clear particular plants of viral and other infections and to quickly multiply these plants as 'cleaned stock' for horticulture and agriculture.
Plant tissue culture relies on the fact that many plant cells have the ability to regenerate a whole plant (totipotency). Single cells, plant cells without cell walls (protoplasts), pieces of leaves, stems or roots can often be used to generate a new plant on culture media given the required nutrients and plant hormones.

KPM HSS FIFTH WEEK PROGRAMMES

On this week our optional teacher Mrs.Sindhu R S completed their second observation.Our general teacher Mrs.jayaprathiba also completed their observation.They all provided their valuable guidance and suggestions in the field of teaching. In this week I completed all my lesson plans .The topic I taught were importance of biodiversity,biodiversity depletion,lost links,let us preserve diversity,insitu conservation,organizations in 8 th standard and liver skin,excretion in other animals and plants in 9 th standard. I also conducted achievement test in this week.

Botanical garden

 A botanical garden or botanic garden is a garden dedicated to the collection, cultivation and display of a wide range of plants labelled with their botanical names. It may contain specialist plant collections such as cacti and other succulent plants, herb gardens, plants from particular parts of the world, and so on; there may be greenhouses, shadehouses, again with special collections such as tropical plants, alpine plants, or other exotic plants. Visitor services at a botanical garden might include tours, educational displays, art exhibitions, book rooms, open-air theatrical and musical performances, and other entertainment.

Botanical gardens are often run by universities or other scientific research organizations, and often have associated herbaria and research programmes in plant taxonomy or some other aspect of botanical science. In principle, their role is to maintain documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display, and education, although this will depend on the resources available and the special interests pursued at each particular garden.

Museum

A museum is an institution that cares for (conserves) a collection of artifacts and other objects of artistic, cultural, historical, or scientific importance. Many public museums make these items available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary.The largest museums are located in major cities throughout the world, while thousands of local museums exist in smaller cities, towns and rural areas. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public. The goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public.

KPM HSS

Dyslexia

Dyslexia, also known as reading disorder, is characterized by trouble with reading despite normal intelligence. Different people are affected to varying degrees.Problems may include difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, "sounding out" words in the head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads.Often these difficulties are first noticed at school. When someone who previously could read loses their ability, it is known as alexia.The difficulties are involuntary and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn
Dyslexia is believed to be caused by both genetic and environmental factors.Some cases run in families. It often occurs in people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and is associated with similar difficulties with numbers.It may begin in adulthood as the result of a traumatic brain injury, stroke, or dementia.The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia are problems within the brain's language processing.Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, spelling, vision, and reading skills.[Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by hearing or vision problems or by insufficient teaching.

Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree of symptoms.Treatments targeting vision are not oeffective. Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world. It affects 3–7% of the population,however, up to 20% may have some degree of symptoms.While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in men,it has been suggested that it affects men and women equally.Some believe that dyslexia should be best considered as a different way of learning, with both benefits and downsides

Learning disabilities

Learning disabilities are neurologically-based processing problems. These processing problems can interfere with learning basic skills such as reading, writing and/or math. They can also interfere with higher level skills such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, long or short term memory and attention.

Hyper active disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder  (ADHD) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type.It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person's age.The symptoms appear before a person is twelve years old, are present for more than six months, and cause problems in at least two settings (such as school, home, or recreational activities).In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance. Although it causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting
ADHD management recommendations vary by country and usually involve some combination of counseling, lifestyle changes, and medications. The British guideline only recommends medications as a first-line treatment in children who have severe symptoms and for medication to be considered in those with moderate symptoms who either refuse or fail to improve with counseling, though for adults medications are a first-line treatment.Canadian and American guidelines recommend that medications and behavioral therapy be used together as a first-line therapy, except in preschool-aged children. Stimulant medication therapy is not recommended as a first-line therapy in preschool-aged children in either guideline.Treatment with stimulants is effective for up to 14 months; however, its long term effectiveness is unclear.[25][26][27][28] Adolescents and adults tend to develop coping skills which make up for some or all of their impairments.

Inclusive education

Inclusive education means that all students attend and are welcomed by their neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school.

Human kidney

Autism

Autism is a developmental disorder  characterized by troubles with social

interaction and communication.Often there is also restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs in the first two or three years of their child's life.These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace and then worsen.
Autism is caused by a combination of genetic  and environmental factors.Risk factors include certain infections during pregnancy  such as rubella as well as valproic acid, alcohol, or cocaine use during pregnancy. Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example the vaccine hypotheses, which have been disproven.Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood.In the DSM V, autism is included within the autism spectrum (ASDs), along with Asperger syndrome which is less severe, and pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS).

Early speech or behavioral interventions can help children with autism gain self-care, social, and communication skills.Although there is no known cure, there have been cases of children who recovered.Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some are successful. An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder.

Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people as of 2015.In the 2000s the number of people affected was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people worldwide.[16] In the developed countries about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD as of 2017, a more than doubling from one in 150 in 2000 in the United States. It occurs four to five times more often in boys than girls.The number of people diagnosed has increased dramatically since the 1960s, partly due to changes in diagnostic practice; the question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.

KPM HSS FOURTH WEEK PROGRAMMES

On this week a special assembly was conducted in the school monday.This assembly was morn over the sudden demise of student who was studying there in 8 th standard named Najma.The head master delivered a speech on condolense meeting.In this week the topic I taught were diverse ecosystem, biodiversity in 8 th standard and kidney diseases and kidney transplantation in 9 th standard. On this week friday was a holiday. I conduct a diagnostic test in 8 th standard .By using power point l would try to make my class more interesting.l cleard all the doughts that asked by my students.

Professional ethics of teacher

As role models, teachers must follow a professional code of ethics. This ensures that students receive a fair, honest and uncompromising education. A professional code of ethics outlines teachers' main responsibilities to their students and defines their role in students' lives.Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as technical and professional competence in the practice of their noble profession, they strictly adhere to, observe, and practice this set of ethical and moral principles, standards, and values.

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Kothari commision

Indian Education Commission (1964-1966), popularly known as Kothari Commission, was an ad hoc commission set up by the Government of India to examine all aspects of the educational sector in India, to evolve a general pattern of education and to advise guidelines and policies for the development of education in India. It was formed on 14 July 1964 under the chairmanship of Daulat Singh Kothari, then chairman of the University Grants Commission.The terms of reference of the commission was to formulate the general principles and guidelines for the development of education from primary level to the highest and advise the government on a standardized national pattern of education in India.However, the medical and legal studies were excluded from the purview of the commission. The tenancy of the commission was from 1964 to 1966 and the report was submitted by the commission on 29 June 1966.

Violence against women

Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence,is, collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Sometimes considered a hate crime, this type of violence targets a specific group with the victim's gender as a primary motive. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states, "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women" and "violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men
The World Health Organization (WHO), in its research on VAW, has analyzed and categorized the different forms of VAW occurring through all stages of life from before birth to old age.

In recent years, there has been a trend of approaching VAW at an international level, through instruments such as conventions; or, in the European Union, through directives, such as the directive against sexual harassment,and the directive against human trafficking.

KPM HSS THIRD WEEK PROGRAMMES

On this week our optional teacher Mrs sindhu Rj came to observe my class.Teacher gave some instructions to improve my teaching.This week our principal teacher Mrs Lakshmi also came to observe my class.The topic i taught for 8 th standard are catch me if youyoucan,biosphere,ecology,trophic level,ecological interactions in 8 th standard and role of kidney in homeostasis in 9 th standard.In this weak our general teacher also observed my class.

Differently abled students

Differently abled was first proposed (in the 1980s) as an alternative to disabled, handicapped, etc. on the grounds that it gave a more positive message and so avoided discrimination towards people with disabilities. The term has gained little currency, however, and has been criticized as both over-euphemistic and condescending. The accepted term in general use is still disabled

Right to education act 2009

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act' or 'Right to Education Act also known as RTE'. Right to education is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted on 4 August 2009, which describes the modalities of the importance of free and compulsory education  for children between 6 and 14 in India under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution.India became one of 135 countries to make education a fundamental right of every child when the act came into force on 1 April 2010.The title of the RTE Act incorporates the words ‘free and compulsory’. ‘Free education’ means that no child, other than a child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education. ‘Compulsory education’ casts an obligation on the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children in the 6-14 age group. With this, India has moved forward to a rights based framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and State Governments to implement this fundamental child right as enshrined in the Article 21A of the Constitution, in accordance with the provisions of the RTE Act.17




Kpm

KPM HSS SECOND WEEK PROGRAMMES

On this week november 14 was celebrated childrens day.So a special assembly was conducted in the school.on the assembly principal deliver the speech.on the first period i conduct some childrens day programme.on this week november 15 i conducted a conscientization programme on the topic the" impact of using chemical fertilizers on land and its health effects".Then i collected the feedback from students.on this week the topic i taught were taxonomic hierarchy,taxonomic hierarchy of plants,binomial nomenclature, five kingdom classification,modern taxonomic hierarchy in 8 th standard and kidney ,urine formation in 9 th standard.l cleard all the doughts that asked by my students.

Mc cormack and yager classification

The instructional objectives are classified under three major domains according to Bloom's Taxonomy and under five domains according to McCormack and Yager Taxonomy.

Kpm hss cheriyavelinalloor

KPM HSS FIRST WEEK PROGRAMMES

I started my second internship programme on kpm HSS 8 th  november 2017.First i met the head master Mr Bibin Bhasker who gives me permission to take classes in 8 th and 9 standard.The biology teachers of kpm Mrs krishnakumari,Nisha,Sreeja gave some instructons to improve teaching.on the first day i started the lesson "Why classification"on 8 th standard.The topic i taught this week are key for identification,scientists.on November 8 and 9 i went to observe my peers raseena pk and shahana's class.on november 9 a assembly conducted in the school,on the assembly principal deliver the speech.

Drug abuse

Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a drug in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or others, and is a form of substance-related disorder. Widely differing definitions of drug abuse are used in public health, medical and criminal justice contexts. In some cases criminal or anti-social behavior occurs when the person is under the influence of a drug, and long term personality changes in individuals may occur as well. In addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, use of some drugs may also lead to criminal penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction

Drugs most often associated with this term include: alcohol, cannabis, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methaqualone, opioids and some substituted amphetamines. The exact cause of substance abuse is not clear, with the two predominant theories being: either a genetic disposition which is learned from others, or a habit which if addiction develops, manifests itself as a chronic debilitating disease.

In 2010 about 5% of people (230 million) used an illicit substance.Of these 27 million have high-risk drug use otherwise known as recurrent drug use causing harm to their health, psychological problems, or social problems or puts them at risk of those dangers. In 2015 substance use disorders resulted in 307,400 deaths, up from 165,000 deaths in 1990. Of these, the highest numbers are from alcohol use disorders at 137,500, opioid use disorders at 122,100 deaths, amphetamine use disorders at 12,200 deaths, and cocaine use disorders at 11,100.

Common communicable diseases

Infectious diseases or 'communicable diseases' are those caused from pathological microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, prions, etc, which can spread from one person to another by direct or indirect means. Infectious diseases can also spread from animals to man or vice-versa (WHO, 2010). Throughout history, microorganisms, the causative organisms for infectious diseases have been playing an active role. Many native populations during the middle Ages have been destroyed by plagues. The Europeans when tried to conquer Australia, Africa and Americas had initially used microorganisms to destroy the native populations. However, the infectious diseases have had a serious effect on the fauna and flora. There were huge causes of morbidity and mortality, but in the 20th century developed nations had lower rates of morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases. The major reasons why there was control over the infectious diseases during the later part of the 20th century was due to the development of antibiotics, eradication of small pox through vaccination, improvement in the living conditions and sanitations, etc. However, in the developing nations, infectious diseases are a major cause of death. In the year 1993, about 51 million people died, out of which 16.4 million about 35% were from infectious diseases. In the sub-Saharan African regions about 70 % of the worldwide infectious disease deaths occur. Developed nations account for 10% of the worldwide infectious disease deaths (Wilson, 1995).

Today, serious changes are made with the environment of the earth such that certain propulsions and groups are becoming vulnerable to certain infectious diseases. Not only have antibiotics made it easier to fight microorganisms but the abuse of the same has resulted in the microbes developing resistance. Besides, many insect vectors are becoming more and more resistant to various pesticides being used. Today there are several emerging infectious such Ebola, H1N1, H5N1, Lassa fever, etc, due to the changing environmental circumstances. In the year 1993, more than 400000 people from Milwaukee US were affected with the epidemic of cryptosporidiosis. In the Southwest people died from pulmonary disease caused due to Hantavirus infection. Not only are the humans affected with infectious diseases but also various other species of domesticated and wild animals (Wilson, 1995).

With History, major changes have undergone with respect to the infectious disease map of the world. In the 20th century, many diseases have spread from tropical to temperate regions and have crossed marine barriers including the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean. More than 14.2 million people each year die from infectious diseases. On the other hand, heart disease kills about 10 million people each year. The most common infectious disease killer is acute respiratory infectious with 3.7 million deaths each year, followed by HIV/AIDS with 2.8 million deaths, diarrheal group of diseases with 1.7 million deaths, malaria with 1 million deaths and measles with 0.8 million deaths. As sanitation and poor living conditions can increase the risk of infectious diseases, such problems are more common in the lower socioeconomic groups. The WHO has predicted that during the next ten years that infectious disease would reduce by about 3 % due to improvement in the living conditions (Bonita, 2006). In the ICD-9 Listing, codes 1 to 113 are given infectious and parasitic disease codes. It is found that about 83% of all deaths from infectious diseases are from range of symptoms outside the classical ICD mentioned criteria (Norman, 1998).

With a number of infectious such as diphtheria, chicken pox, measles, feco-oral infections, cholera, rotavirus infection, etc, seasonal variations play a vital role, in the temperate and the tropical regions of the world. The mechanism by which this is occurring is not understood clearly. Certain reasons may be applicable for the seasonal variations of a disease:-

Seasonability has several factors and a lot depends on local factors

Depending on the characteristics of the infections epidemics or peak in incidences can occur at different times of the year

There may be an interaction of pathogens that may affect the spread of another infection

Hence, depending on these criteria vaccination can be used to block the spread of the infection (Nicholas C. Grassly, 2006).

Infectious diseases may not just involve one person or a particular community or a population. Often more than one population may be affected across a region or a nation. Besides, infectious diseases can also affect animals including goats (Echinococcus), dogs (rabies), birds (H5N1), etc.

Classification

The listing of the ICD-9 Codes for Infectious diseases includes:-

Intestinal Infectious Diseases - 001 to 009

Tuberculosis - 010 to 018

Zoonotic Bacterial Infectious - 020 to 027

Other bacterial Infectious (such as leprosy, diphtheria, scarlet fever, etc) - 030 to 041

HIV - 042 to 044

Poliomyelitis, kuru, CJD, etc - 045 to 049

Virus with exanthema - 050 to 059

Arthropod borne virus infection - 060 to 066

Other diseases caused by virus and Chlamydia (such as hepatitis A, B & C, rabies, trachoma, warts, etc) - 070 to 079

Rickettsia and other arthropod infections (080 to 088)

Syphilis and other venereal diseases (gonorrhea, urethritis, etc) - 090 to 099

Other Spirochete infections such as yaws, pinta, etc - 100 to 104

Mycoses or fungal infectious - 110 to 118

Helmenthic or worm infestation - 120 to 129

Other infections - 130 to 136

Late effects of infections - 137 to 139 (ICD-9 codes)

Transmission

Infectious diseases are transmitted by two means, namely the direct and indirect means. Direct means includes contact with the infected person who comes in contact with the normal person. Through contact, infections can spread by three means, the first two include horizontal means and the third include vertical transmission. Infectious diseases usually spread by direct transfer of the infected fluids or secretions from one individual to another. There may be several means of person to person transmission including sharing infected needles, sexual contact, kissing, blood transfusion, sneezing, coughing, mucosa to mucosa, etc. Direct contact would also include contact with infected animals or handling contaminated animal wastes. The vertical transmission is by means of the infected mother to the baby. Infections again can be transmitted by different means at different periods. When the unborn baby is in the uterus, it can get infected from the mother. Certain infections can be transmitted across the placenta and include bacteria (such as syphilis, listeriosis), viruses (such as CM Virus, AIDS, German measles), and protozoans (such as toxoplasmosis) (Lee Goldman, 2007). The effect on the fetus may range from fetal infections, lesions, mental retardation, physical growth retardation, multi-organ defects, birth defects, aborted, etc (Dorak, 2009). On the other hand, infection can spread to the baby during passage of the baby through the infected birth canal. Lastly, infection can spread through contaminated breast milk of the mother during nursing (Lee Goldman, 2007).

Exposure to the infectious agents can result in various outcomes including no infection, clinical infection, sub-clinical infection or carrier status. Clinical infection can result death, carrier status and further immunity or no immunity against the disease. Sub-clinical infection can result in carrier status, immunity or no immunity against the disease (Dorak, 2009).

Infectious diseases can also spread through indirect methods which include contaminated objects, personal items, food borne, waterborne, vector borne, air-borne, ting-borne and surfaces. For example, common cold can spread by using contaminated towels. Various bacterial, viral and parasitic infections can spread through vectors or carriers such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice, ticks, etc. Infectious diseases can also be transmitted from one individual to another through contaminated food or water or the oro-fecal route. Consuming uncooked, undercooked or raw foods, unsuitable drinking water, etc, can cause infectious. For example, in Latin America, there is evidence through PCR diagnostic tests that H. pylori cause gastric problems (Lee Goldman, 2007).

Certain individuals may be at a higher risk of getting infected which includes those with autoimmune disorders, those who have undergone an organ transplant and are taking immunosuppressant, those consuming corticosteroids and those infected with HIV/AIDS. The other risk factors that play a role in the development of the infectious diseases may include age, race, sex, socioeconomic status, geo-location, medication use, illegal drug use, history of travel, etc (Sherwood, 2004). The mode of causation of an infectious disease is by an interaction of internal factors and environmental factors.

An infection may arise as a result of a triad of factors affecting the system including the host, agent and the environment. The host factors include age, sex, gene-type, mental makeup, nutritional makeup, immune status, and health makeup. The environmental factors include air, water, sanitation, psychosocial status, geography, housing, food, healthcare delivery system, etc. The agent factors include pathogenicity of the organism (ability to cause disease), infectivity (ability to cause infection), virulence (ability to cause death), immunogenicity, survival and antigenic capabilities (Dorak, 2009).

The entire natural cycle of the infection would ensure that the infectious agent is at the business end. The infectious agent would enter the host or reservoir and then exit from the body, carried by a mode of transmission and enter another person's body. It would result in infection in a susceptible host.

Koch bought out certain postulates for infections. In each case, the organism is present. The organism can be isolated or grown in each culture. Once each individual is exposed to the agent, the disease as such can be reproduced. From each of the infected individuals, the pathogen can be isolated.

Symptoms

An individual suffering from an infectious disease may present with no symptoms, symptoms which are not definitive, mild symptoms, or serious symptoms with complications. The period between the exposure of the individual to the infectious organism and the appearance of the first symptom may vary from a few days (in the case of chicken pox, malaria, etc), months to a few years (in the case of HIV). Infectious disease can produce a range of symptoms including:-

Fever

Chills and rigors

Bleeding of the gums and periodontal diseases

Epistaxis

Sore throat

Anorexia

Tiredness

Body pain

Dyspnea and breathing problems

Headache

Fever with seizures

Swelling or a rash

Malaise

Enlargement of the regional lymph nodes along with tenderness

Diarrhea and dysentery

Bloody stools

Yellowness of the skin and the tongue

Paleness

Skin lesions or skin rash

Blood shot eyes (in the case of conjunctivitis)

Burning sensation whilst passing urine

Abscess or a draining sinus

Pain, swelling from the affected site along with a rise in the temperature

Gastritis

Spread of the bacteria, along with the toxin in the blood

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of Infectious disease is made based on the history, physical examination, signs, symptoms, analysis of the tissue samples, microscopy, culture, blood tests, urine tests, molecular diagnosis and other methods. The history includes details of the personal history, history of travel, family history, social history, occupational history and epidemiology (Paul G. Engelkirk, 2007).

Body samples of urine, CSF, nasal secretions, nasal swab, stools, etc are collected to study them microscopically. In certain circumstances water, soil, inanimate objects and food samples are also analyzed. In certain circumstances the samples are collected at a particular period of time. In malaria, the samples are collected when the fever is high and in the case of typhoid the blood samples are collected when the fever begins to rise. It is important to prevent contamination of the sample during testing and avoid any destruction of the causative organisms. It is important to transport the samples appropriately and test them immediately as many anaerobic species may not be able to survive in the oxygen-rich environment. Besides, it is also important to prevent drying of the samples. All samples should be given appropriate care during laboratory testing as they are hazardous and can infect the testing personnel (Barbara A. Bannister, 2000).

There are different microscopes that can be used for studying the samples including light microscope, phase-contrast microscope, dark-field microscope, electron microscope, etc. Various staining procedures may be required to study the samples including gram staining, Giemsa staining, Ziehl-Nielsen staining, Indian Ink staining, etc. Helminthes, urine bacteria and fecal protozoan are best viewed through direct microscopy of unstained samples. Gram staining helps to identify organisms in pus, CSF, ascitis, pleural fluids, etc. Ziehl-Nielsen staining is used to study that will not stain through ordinary procedures. Romanowsky staining is used to stain blood cells, whereas Giemsa staining is used to identify the parasites present in blood. Immunofluorescence is a method of identifying the organisms through reactions with antibodies tagged with fluorescence dyes. There are two methods of immunofluorescence including direct and indirect methods (Barbara A. Bannister, 2000).

Culturing involves growing the microorganisms present in the sample in the laboratory on an appropriate media and recognizing the same using physical, biochemical and morphological means. Different media may be used including enriched media, selective media and indicative media. Another process of distinguishing between the various strains of an organism is typing. These include biotyping, auxotyping, serotyping, phagetyping, PCR typing, etc (Barbara A. Bannister, 2000).

Blood tests called as 'serological tests' are done to determine the antigen-antibody reaction that occur. Some of the common tests that are done in the laboratory include agglutination, fluorescent antibody tests, radioimmunoassay and ELISA. Molecular methods of diagnosis are used to determine specific DNA fragments that would be a signature of certain species of pathogens. Some of the common molecular diagnostic techniques include PCR and amplification techniques (Barbara A. Bannister, 2000).

Treatment

One of the earliest ways of managing an infectious disease was in malaria when certain local communities used cinchona to treat the disease. From the cinchona bark, quinine was extracted and is used even today to manage malaria. Today, antimicrobial agents are being used to treat infectious disease. These microbial agents attack the various metabolic pathways that are present in the microbial metabolism. For example certain compounds are similar to PABA, and prevent PABA from undergoing transformation into dihydropteroic acid, which is essential for folate metabolism. Once there is shortage of folic acid in the body, the DNA of the bacteria undergoes degradation. Further other antimicrobial agents which target other portions of the metabolism can also be used for more effective treatment of infectious diseases. These include trimethoprin and sulphamethoxazole. The other ways by which antimicrobial agents act include causes the destruction of the bacterial cell wall, inhibition of the protein synthesis in bacteria, and damaging the DNA structure. For certain antimicrobial agents to act, the bacteria should be sensitive to the drug. Besides, the manner in which the drug is administered and the spectrum of action of the drug also plays a vital role in treating infections. Antimicrobial sensitivity tests are conducted to determine which particular agents the bacteria would be sensitive and resistant to and accordingly select a potent agent to treat the infection (Barbara A. Bannister, 2000). To ensure that the treatment with antibiotics is working properly certain monitoring strategies may be required including:-

Appropriate levels of antibiotics are present in the serum

The levels of antibiotics do not reach a level such that it would cause toxic effects

Patient compliance and adherence

Appropriate means of administration

Pharmacokinetics of new drugs

Monitoring all the adverse effects (dose-dependent or idiosyncratic)

Some of the common groups of antimicrobial agents that are used to treat infections include:-

Penicillin

Penicillinase resistant penicillin

Ampicillin-like agents

Beta-lactamase inhibitors

Cephalosporin

Aminoglycosides

Chloramphenicols

Quinolones

Antifungal Agents

Antiviral agents

Antimalarial agents

Antitubercular drugs

Antiprotozoan agents

Prevention

Infectious diseases are transmitted from one individual to another through several routes including direct contact, inhalation of airborne infections, consuming contaminated food or water, through vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, etc, sexual contact, using contaminated personal items and through the mother-fetal route. Hence, prevention can be advocated by obstructing the means of transmission of the infection. One of the most important methods of prevention is by proper and frequent hygiene by handwashing and using a disinfecting soap. Immunization also plays a vital role in preventing infections by administering vaccines to the general populations. Vaccines are currently available for a number of bacterial and viral infections including meningococcal infections, hepatitis B, hepatitis A, polio, diphtheria, typhoid, tetanus, haemophilus influenza, chicken pox, rotavirus, human papilloma virus, H1N1, measles, mumps, rubella, etc. Passive immunization can be administered by the administration of immunoglobulin. Zoonotic infections can be prevented by immunizing the pets, providing a clean and safe environment for the animals, washing hands before contacting animals, takes measures after animal bites, etc. At the workplace, transmission of infections are a risk because of the conditions and also because people are in close contact with each other and also with hazards. Needles, syringes and other biohazards need to be disposed off properly. Blood during donation and infusion should be appropriately screened for various blood-borne infections such as HIV, Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, syphilis, etc. Rubber gloves should be worn by the healthcare professional and for every new patient, a new set of sterile drugs should be selected. Hospital wastes should be disposed off properly to prevent hazardous wastes from further causing havoc (Andi L. Shane, 2008).

Safe sex and sexual hygiene is also essential to prevent risk of transmission of STD's such as HIV, hepatitis B, etc. If there is the chance of the partner practicing unsafe sex, then a condom and other barriers help reduce the risk of transmission. Special precautions also need to be taken during travel. Areas infected with infectious diseases should be best not visited. For some people, vaccination may be required along with consumption of prophylactic antimicrobial agents (Andi L. Shane, 2008).

Infectious Diseases in Saudi Arabia

As in the rest of the world, in Saudi Arabia also, the morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases are high. An infection would have its course and severity varied depending on the virulence of the agent and the resistance of the host. Besides, a number of environmental factors also need to be considered. Two of the most common infections and serious health problems in the Western populations have been community-acquired pneumonia and fever of unknown origin (PUO). In the US, each year more than 1.3 million people get hospitalized from infectious diseases. The WHO has attributed Tuberculosis the most common cause of death in the world adult population. Certain factors may increase the risk for TB including HIV status, lower socioeconomic background, poor sanitation, etc. The other common infectious diseases throughout the world were hepatitis B, malaria and meningitis. Alghamdi found that the prior knowledge of prevalence and pattern of infectious diseases in the Western Saudi Arabian population was rather unknown and hence conducted this study to determine the most common infection in the hospitalized and determine their mean time of stay. More than 495 patients that were hospitalized between Jan 2000 to December 2004 at the King Abdulaziz University

Hospital (KAUH) was studied. All data was collected from the patient's medical records. About 8.8 % of the population who were admitted to the hospital or 1 in 11 were admitted for infectious diseases, and slightly more than 50% were males and 54% were native Saudis. Individuals between 26 to 45 years were commonly affected with infectious diseases, followed by the 13-25 year old group. The senior citizen population was least often affected with infectious disease. The most common infectious disease was pneumonia, followed by fever of unknown origin, TB, and viral hepatitis. In women, pneumonia was more common than men, whereas TB and meningitis were more common in men. The other common infectious in the population included bronchopneumonia, malaria and urinary tract infections (Aisha A. Alghamdi, 2009).

The incidence of meningococcal meningitis is common in Hajj pilgrims and in the year 2000, several cases were reported in the Hajj pilgrims. The two common serogroups were serogroups A (24%) and W-135 (37%). The epidemiologists found that the Hajj Pilgrim 2000 Meningococcal attack was in fact two concurrent outbreaks. The W-135 serogroup is endemic in Saudi Arabia. The fatalities were high amongst the pilgrims and hence since the year 1987, mandatory vaccination was being introduced. The vaccine used in fact is quadrivalent in nature (Jairam R. Lingappa, 2003).

The Tuberculosis statistics in Saudi Arabia were also alarming. In a study conducted by Sahal A. M. Al-Hajoj, 2006, it was found from about 1500 cases of Tuberculosis infection, that male-female ratio was 1.27 and 47% of the population being adults between the age groups of 21-40 years. The single drug resistant cases were about 19.7 % and the multi-drug resistant cases were about 47% (Sahal A. M. Al-Hajoj, 2006).

Sahal A. M. Al-Hajoj (2009) conducted another study to find if the mortality and morbidity from tuberculosis could be decreased in Saudi Arabia. There was a rise in the number of cases of TB between 1990 and 2004 by about 6.2%. In Western Saudi Arabia, there is a huge influx of individuals from developing countries who may already be infected with Tuberculosis. The rise in tuberculosis cases may not only be due a rise in infection rate, but also due to better diagnosis techniques. Better TB programs and effective diagnostic laboratories are the need of the hour in controlling cases of tuberculosis in Saudi Arabia. There should also be greater uniformity across the country in standardization.

In the year 2000, there was an epidemic of Rift Valley Fever in Saudi Arabia which had spread from the neighboring North African Region. About 886 patients were included in the study by Tariq A. Madan. The age group affected was the 40 to 50 year, and the male to female ratio was 4:1. The common symptoms recorded included fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, jaundice, diarrhea, neurological complications, bleeding, visual loss, liver function test abnormalities, leucopenia, renal failure, anemia, etc. There were about 14% mortalities from the disease and were often associated with bleeding, neurological symptoms and jaundice. People with leucopenia had a lower mortality than those who had a rise in the leukocyte count (Tariq A. Madan, 2000).

In the year 2007, the first outbreak of H5N1 occurred in Saudi Arabia and affected 19 poultry farms. Several diagnostic tests were conducted to confirm the infection including Rapid antigen-capture test and real-time RT-PCR. Once the infection was identified in a particular town in Saudi Arabia, the government immediately made a decision destroy the H5N1 affected fleet and the non-affected birds in a radius of 5 kilometers and ensure quarantine measures were followed in the region so that the infection could be prevented from spreading to other regions. Besides, other measures were being adopted including closing bird markets, greater surveillance, quarantine, etc. Within a period of three months from the first detected cases, the epidemic was totally under control. Further within a period of three months (April 2008), Saudi Arabia was declared as H5N1-free (Huaguang Lu, 2009).

In a study conducted by Abdulrahman A. Alrajhi (2004), the mode of transmission of HIV-1 was being studied. It was found that 46% were heterosexual transmission, 26% due to infected blood transfusion, 12% vertical transmission, 5% from homosexual activities and 2% due to use of contaminated syringes during IV drug usage. Most of the heterosexual men got infected from commercial sex workers, and about 65 women got infected from their husbands. In Saudi, the most rampant form of transmission of HIV-1 is heterosexual mode. The mean age of diagnosis of HIV in the 410 individuals who took part in the study was 27.8 years. The adult infection rate is about 0.01%. Women tend to get the infection from their spouses. The rate of infection was relative lower in homosexual men and IV Drug users (Abdulrahman A. Alrajhi, 2004).

Thus it can be seen that infectious diseases are a serious problems. Some of the infections that are common in Saudi Arabia include pneumonia, Fever of unknown origin, tuberculosis, meningitis, HIV, acute viral hepatitis, chronic viral hepatitis, malaria, etc. Besides, outbreaks of several emerging infections are becoming commoner in Saudi. These include the Rift Valley Fever of 2000, H5N1 outbreak of 2007, dengue fever, viral hemorrhagic fever, multi-drug resistant tuberculosis, etc. Many of the zoonotic infectious are getting transmitted to man by vectors such as ticks and mosquitoes (Tariq A. Madani, 2004). The mechanism of development and the transmission of such infections need to be studied