Information and communication technology

ICT (Information & Communication Technologies)

What are ICTs and what types of ICTs are commonly used in education?

ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the purposes of this primer, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.”4 These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. In recent years there has been a groundswell of interest in how computers and the Internet can best be harnessed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of education at all levels and in both formal and non-formal settings. But ICTs are more than just these technologies; older technologies such as the telephone, radio and television, although now given less attention, have a longer and richer history as instructional tools.5 For instance, radio and television have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries.6 The use of computers and the Internet is still in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Moreover, different technologies are typically used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For instance, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.7 The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.8 Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audioconferencing technologies.

How can ICTs help expand access to education?

 ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational opportunities, both formal and non-formal, to previously underserved constituencies—scattered and rural populations, groups traditionally excluded from education due to cultural or social reasons such as ethnic minorities, girls and women, persons with disabilities, and the elderly, as well as all others who for reasons of cost or because of time constraints are unable to enroll on campus. • Anytime, anywhere. One defining feature of ICTs is their ability to transcend time and space. ICTs make possible asynchronous learning, or learning characterized by a time lag between the delivery of instruction and its reception by learners. Online course materials, for example, may be accessed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. ICT-based educational delivery (e.g., educational programming broadcast over radio or television) also dispenses with the need for all learners and the instructor to be in one physical location. Additionally, certain types of ICTs, such as teleconferencing technologies, enable instruction to be received simultaneously by multiple, geographically dispersed learners (i.e., synchronous learning). • Access to remote learning resources. Teachers and learners no longer have to rely solely on printed books and other materials in physical media housed in libraries (and available in limited quantities) for their educational needs. With the Internet and the World Wide Web, a wealth of learning materials 

computer virus and preventive measures

What is a computer virus? 

It is a program designed to replicate itself into other files or programs stored on your device. Viruses can cause programs to opperate incorrectly or corrupt a computer's momory. 

Virus types

There are six broad catagories that viruses fall under: 

1. Boot Sector Virus - targets the boot sector of a hard drive and crucially effects the boot proccess.
2. File Infection Virus - coded viruses that attach themselves to .exe files; compressed files such as zip or drive files.
3. Multipartite Virus - cross between a file virus and a boot sector virus.
4. Network Virus - uniquely created to quickly spread throughout the local area network and generally across the Internet as well. Typically moves within shared resources like drives and folders.
5. Macro Virus - infects program files that use macros in the program itself, such as word processors. 
6. E-mail Virus - generally this is a macro virus which multiplies by sending itself to other contacts in your address book, in hopes they'll activate the virus as well.

Virus Prevention

Today, many "worm" viruses travel the internet actively seeking vulnerable computers. This means that your computer can become infected just by connecting to the internet. Although new viruses are being created all the time, there are some steps that you can take to protect your computer. 

Your most important defense is installing and regularly updating virus protection software. Although anti-virus software is criticial, it is no longer enough to provide maximum protection alone. You should also run operating system updates regularly. 

• Windows users can install critical updates by opening Internet Explorer and then choosing Tools and Windows Update from the menu. 
• Macintosh users can install updates by clicking on the Apple menu and choosing Software Update.

Other Tips on Virus Prevention

internet abuse

nternet abuse refers to improper use of the internet and may include:

• Computer crime, use of computers in criminal activity.
• Cyber-bullying, use of the internet to bully and intimidate
• Spam (electronic), sending unwanted advertising
• Malware, software designed to harm a user's computer, including computer viruses

Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs) one image or shape into another through a seamless transition. Most often it is used to depict one person turning into another through technological means or as part of a fantasy or surreal sequence.

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Morphing

Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes one image or shape into another through a seamless transition. 

cyber privacy

Internet privacy involves the right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the storing, repurposing, provision to third parties, and displaying of information pertaining to oneself via the Internet. Internet privacy is a subset of data privacy. Privacy concerns have been articulated from the beginnings of large scale computer sharing.

Privacy can entail either Personally Identifying Information (PII) or non-PII information such as a site visitor's behavior on a website. PII refers to any information that can be used to identify an individual. For example, age and physical address alone could identify who an individual is without explicitly disclosing their name, as these two factors are unique enough to typically identify a specific person.

Some experts such as Steve Rambam, a private investigator specializing in Internet privacy cases, believe that privacy no longer exists; saying, "Privacy is dead – get over it".In fact, it has been suggested that the "appeal of online services is to broadcast personal information on purpose."On the other hand, in his essayThe Value of Privacy, security expert Bruce Schneier says, "Privacy protects us from abuses by those in power, even if we're doing nothing wrong at the time ofsurveillance."

A visualization of internet trackers

intelligence

Intelligence is what you use when you do not know what to do” – Jean Piaget.

Meaning and Definition:

Human being is considered to be the most intelligent animal in this world. He is capable of controlling all other beings and many other things in this world.

Intelligence has a very important role in day- to-day activities of the individual.

The word intelligence has been derived from a Latin verb ‘intellegere’ means to understand.

What is intelligence? There are many answers for this question. The concept of intelligence has been understood by psychologists in different ways. Therefore, there are a number of definitions. The following are some of the important definitions:

Alfred Binet:

Intelligence is something which sensory acuity tests or reaction time experiments measure.

Spencer:

Intelligence is the capacity of the organism to adjust itself to an increasingly complex environment.

Terman:

Intelligence is the ability to carry on abstract thinking.

Munn:

It is the capacity for flexible adjustment.

Goddard:

Intelligence is the degree of availability of one’s experiences for the solution of immediate problems and the anticipation of the future ones.

Spearman:

Intelligence is the capacity for constructive thinking, which involves a discovery of appropriate qualities and relations of the ideas, that are before us and bringing in of other relevant ideas.

All these definitions define intelligence in their own way, but they are incomplete, because they give incomplete picture. In view of this problem, many psychologists have accepted a definition by Wechsler. David Wechsler (1944) who devised the intelligence tests for children as well as adults tried to provide a somewhat comprehensive definition:

“Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to think rationally, to act purposefully and to deal effectively with his environment”.

This definition includes three important processes, viz., to act purposefully means, to act in a determined way without any ambiguity, to think appropriately in a rational way without any prejudices and to deal effectively with the environment or to adjust in a proper way with the environment.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ):

As said above every individual will possess some amount of intelligence. We may be able to say whether the individual is less intelligent or more intelligent on the basis of his performance in activities. But to know the exact quantity of intelligence possessed by an individual, administration of an intelligence test is essential.

When a test is administered we get a score which may be converted into Mental Age (M A), the concept developed by Alfred Binet. This is an index of his mental ability. But this score does not give us the quantitative measure of his mental ability or intelligence.

Hence, in order to know a quantitative measure, a German psychologist by name William Stern proposed a formula, i.e. MA/CA x 100.

The output we get out of this formula was called as Intelligence Quotient (IQ) by Stern, which is the index of the quantity of intelligence possessed by the person. The Chronological Age (CA) will be the actual or real age of the person.

The resultant product of MA divided by CA may be in decimal point, which does not give a clear picture. Hence, in order to overcome this problem of decimal points, Stern suggested that the product be multiplied by 100. This product will be supposed to be the quantity of intelligence possessed by the individual.

Binet and other psychologists had a firm belief that the IQ remains constant and it will not change though the individual grows chronologically. They believed that the growth of intelligence will be ceased by 16th year in almost all individuals.

Hence, they restricted CA to 16 years-irrespective of the age of individuals after 16 years. That is why the actual CA will be considered if the age is below 16 years while calculating IQ. But it will be taken as only 16, even if the age of the individual exceeds 16 years.

Examples: IQ=MA/CA× 100

= 10/10×100=100

= 12/10×100=120

= 8/10×100=80

video conferencing

A Video Conference (known as video teleconference) is a set of interactive telecommunication technologies which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way video and audio transmissions simultaneously. It has also been called 'visual collaboration' and is a type of groupware.

In other word Video Conferencing is a communications technology that integrates video and voice to connect remote users with each other as if they were in the same room. Each user needs computer, web cam, microphone, and broadband internet connection for participation in video conferencing. Users see and hear each other in real-time, allowing natural conversations.

Video Conferencing differs from a videophone calls in that its designed to serve a conference rather than individuals. It is an intermediate form of video telephony, first deployed commercially by A T & T during the early 1970s using their picture phone technology.

Video Conferencing is becoming increasingly popular as a way to facilitate meetings, and save time and money on travel and accommodation

Video Conferencing can be used in a host of different environments, which is one of the reasons the technology is so popular. General uses for video conferencing include business meetings, educational training or instruction and collaboration among health officials or other representatives. Thus far video conferencing has been helping in different sphere of life. The most usage field of Video conferencing -

1. Interviewing prospective students and staff
2. Presentations
3. Seminar presentations to remote audiences
4. Business meeting
5. Distance Learning
6. Telecommuting
7. Telemedicine

BENIFICIAL OF VIDEO CONFERENCE

The biggest advantage or benefit Video Conferencing has to offer is the ability to meet with people in remote locations without incurring travel expenses or other expenses associated with face to face communication. Business meetings, educational meetings, healthcare conferences and more can all be easily conducted thanks to video conferencing technology. Individuals living in remote areas can also use video conferencing to keep in touch if you will, with the world at large.

More people are easily accessed and contacted using video conferencing. Because of this technology information and knowledge are often disseminated at more rapid rates, and collaboration between people occurs more willingly and freely. Students can take advantage of video conferencing to take classes at distant locations that would normally be unavailable. They can also take classes that will accommodate busy schedules.

Video Conferencing can stimulate better brainstorming, knowledge sharing and information gathering. Businesses can use video conferencing to provide presentations to key members of an organization or to solicit new clients in a professional manner, regardless of their location. The possibilities for communication are virtually endless thanks to video conferencing technologies.

Video Conferencing provides with the ability to meet and to work with others over a distance. The following list includes several examples of the benefits for businesses using videoconferencing:

Reduce travel costs.

Improve use of executive time.

Speed up decision-making.

Keep meetings brief and more focused than face-to-face meetings.

Enable top management to quickly and effectively communicate with employees sitting in multiple locations.

Allows virtual project management via video and data conferencing with geographically dispersed peer groups at short notice.

Provides an effective way of delivering cost-efficient training to individuals without the requirement to consistently travel to central locations.

Creates a medium for conducting interviews.

Working out of home has never been easier or more practical. Videoconferencing makes it possible to stay connected with people in a very real way. Videoconferencing allows users to save resources by meeting with clients and/or colleagues via videoconference. This reduces travel expenses, while maintaining face-to-face contact.

For a minimal cost, it is possible to set-up a fully functional videoconferencing system that works in a professional and reliable way from your home office.

Video Conferencing used to be something of a black art. Today, easy-to-use and manage technology means that users need know little about how the equipment actually works, What's important is what it can do, now how it does it.

Video Conferencing has become popular over the last decade. Video conferencing is when two or more parties communicate in real time in separate locations with both video and audio signals. Technology used in Video conferencing

Video Input

Video Output

Audio Inputr

Audio Output

Data Transfer

Data Compression Software

Acoustic Echo Cancellation

This is the technology/software used for video conferencing. The software is usually used for Video Conferencing. So start video conferencing in your preferable work and make your world easy and trouble free.

social devolopment

Introduction

Social development is the process of social changes that are designed to improve the living standard of a society, by improving the economic development. It also refers to the changes in the social order within a society. It may also refer to the notion of sociocultural evolution, or 'social progress'.

Social development should reflect the society's desire to live in prosperity and equality. Each member of the community must have achieved freedom from colonial rule and be actively involved in the process of development leading to a dignified and high-quality lifestyle. Social development is an important aspect in a country. When a society is strong, indirectly a country will always be strong and stable whether economically, socially, or politically. Therefore, in the building of a strong country or civilization, the aspect of social development has to be emphasized.

The concept of 'social development' is the result of phrase 'welfare' born earlier. In 1969, the United Nations Conference of Social Welfare Ministers emphasized the social welfare activities to control the development of society by promoting and planning implementation and administration section. Social welfare is functioning in broader aspects in the social development of countries. In other words, social development can be considered to strive to meet some functions, such as providing quality service to ensure that the objectives meet the social well-being, identified the effect on changes in life and adapt to the social condition; identify the impact of policies and programs to minimize its impact on society and to identify and eliminate social factors that have impact on social problems. (Social Institute of Malaysia, 2004)

In Malaysia the government's objective is to ensure social development axis to the people; community and economic resources which are used to meet the needs of human effectively. Thus, social development is the key to building a life of quality. Since independence, the main objective of development was to preserve unity and allow populations to modernize economic integration. Therefore, the process of social development plays an important role to avoid any negative impact due to economic growth. Social development covered many sector and is different in certain countries. These differences are influenced by the country's culture. In Malaysia, social development covers education, empowerment of women, employment and poverty.

An essential component of social development is a revolution in the education system in countries affecting changes on the style and quality of lives. Due to its importance, the education becomes a core policy in social economic agenda. The education objective is linked to the New Economic Policy (NEP), National Development Policy (NDP) and other national agenda, especially which provide education to all citizens of Malaysia; produce quality human resources; produce knowledgeable and skilled individuals. In 2000, the literacy rate was 93.8% (Utusan, 11 September 2004). In the 2008 national budget which was announced in September 2007, the government abolished school fees, exam fees and textbook loan scheme to all segments of the student as an incentive to ensure that education become first and priority among the parents and children themselves. Free education is a visible change in social development after 56 years of independence.

In addition to government role, the private sector was also given a role in social development. It has existed for a long time since 1957; more particularly provided by Christian missionaries and Chinese educators who work with Chinese business and community leaders India. After 1957, it was reduced and integrated into national education system. Education Act 1996 and Private Institution of Ministry of Education guidance; allows private education to continue to grow in the name of social development of the country today.

Since independence, emancipation and empowerment of women's position has changed with the introduction of policies that enable their participation more comprehensively in economical, social and political activities. National Policy for Women was launched in 1989 to improve the role of women and ensure they have responsibilities in national development. Today, women are not only policymakers but many of them are well established in a sector dominated by men before. Intake of female students has also improved in higher education institutions and in entrepreneurship. Their development in entrepreneurship clearly shows that they are capable of handling big scale business.

Action plan have been executed and projects have been planned to meet the objectives of policy, so that woman can grow as other community group. This includes the education opportunities for further education and training at all levels which are not discriminated against woman. Financial assistance is also provided to those in need. Similarly, vocational training and financial assistance was given to women in business. To improve women's health, some of the plans executed, including strengthening family health, maternal and child, family planning, nutrition and infectious disease control. Indeed, awareness of women's health is also improved through awareness campaigns and programs across rural areas. Awareness and dissemination of information especially with regard to HIV / AIDS; balanced lifestyle and the needs for ongoing health checkup improved the health status of today is far better than before

Malaysia government also ensures single-parent families or families headed by women are not neglected. In 1999, nearly 18.6% of the households are headed by women (Utusan, March 21, 2000). So, they are encouraged to engage in micro-businesses and a number of laws have been amended to improve the status of women in this country. These include amending the Employment Act 1955, which allows women to work in a more flexible time. Establishment of the Ministry of Women, Family and Community on year 2001 shows the government's commitment to strategize and the implementation of a more structured basis for bringing a new shift in women development.

Malaysia has maintained employment rate since the 1970s up to 2007. Even there is lack of employment in certain sectors; Malaysia government has a compiled program to increase employment opportunities. This is in line with the New Economic Policy (NEP), National Development Policy (NDP) and other policies implemented under the government's agenda. Besides seeking to improve labor productivity and wages, it also seeks to establish zero unemployment which is the objective of national employment policy.

During the 1997 economic crisis, government ensures workers are not affected and can continue their work. For example, new graduates are placed in government agencies to ensure that they remain employed in the current economic climate movement. From that period, up to year 2000, government has spent nearly RM 2.2 billion to arrange development of skillful worker (Government of Malaysia, 2001, the Ministry of Finance, 2007). Strategies and programs implemented by the government during the economic crisis are instrumental to ensure that the employee is not affected even when there are retrenchment in a number of organizations.

There are certain categories of workers who are not getting the full social protection in Malaysia. This includes maid, member of the armed forces, wife of the workers, policemen and those who are in police custody. However, employees who retired at age requirement will receive pension. Similarly, the expenditure for injury occuring at work or medical benefits paid by employers. Employee Provident Fund (EPF) was introduced in the year 1951 to ensure the funds of financial security, especially after retirement reserved.

As a part of social development in Malaysia, government also helps to provide social welfare assistance. This scheme gives priority for those who need it, especially the disabled, senior citizens, families and children in need. It is in line with the program to eradicate poverty, social welfare of NGOs, private companies, activists and the charity. In addition, there are also private insurance. Health care schemes, under the Ministry of Health, also subsidized by the government, given especially for the poor. This suggest, social development continues to grow in line with employment rate and government's continued support.

In the social development, investment on health sector is a major attention given by the government. This is in line with the economic development that allows health status to improve. Since 1957, national development program has been developing the health sector which include services focusing on comprehensive health care at both the beginning, middle, and upper stages. Health sector is one of the needs in country's social development. The objective of the health sector today is to improve the health care delivery system, especially under the national health development plan.

Since 1970, government is committed to eradicate poverty which is one of the main objectives of the National Economic Policy NEP. With the backdrop of the government's policy, various non-governmental organizations and the private sector are working together to eradicate poverty in the country. This planning is successful within the range of 5% when compared to 1970, almost half of the family household were living below the poverty line.

This policy aimed to eliminate poverty in the long run and reduce it in the short term. In 1989, the main strategies to reduce poverty are considered extreme. In fact, under the Ninth Malaysia Plan (RMK9), FELCRA Limited plans to open 50,000 hectares of new plantation land which aims to tackle the issue of poverty among the population. (Utusan, 22 September 2007).

Other programs to reduce poverty have been planned and implemented over 56 years of independence. These include the Severe Poor Development Programme which aims to investigate the root cause emergence of poverty. Most programs consist of focused projects that will lead to generates revenues for small and medium industry. Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia, is one of program implemented which aimed to providing microcredit as an aid for those interested in a particular field or sector. These efforts continued despite the 1998 economic crisis. In fact, some of the additional funds were made available to the rural areas so that the quality of public services and facilities can be improved, including in the sectors of education, medicine, water and electricity

After 56 years of independence, Malaysia was beyond time. Starting with the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), now it will have a number of plans, including the development of the Regional Development Plan East Coast Economic (ECER) which will focus on Agropolitan Agricultural Development Authority (KADA) in Kelantan to alleviate poverty and the introduction of agricultural systems using biotechnology. Northern Economic Region Development Plan (NCER), which integrates Perak, Penang, Kedah and Perlis also, will generate growth much better than now.

CONCLUSION

There are several factors that contribute to the success of national social development policies. Among them is the position of a conducive political environment; ability of administrators who have the expertise and technical capability, and willingness to compete globally without compromising the domestic position of people(Omar and Pandian, 2005). Quality of life has changed. The effectiveness of social services is because of the availability of financial resources that enable investment made ​​in education, health, improve the status of women, poverty eradication and increase in employment. After 56 years of independence, the community is able to enjoy a prosperous life and more balanced than 56 years ago. Policy formulation and social development depends on the politic, economy, culture and ecology. Half of the next century is expected to bring greater changes if the government continued efforts done through the integration of social values ​​in a comprehensive development policy as well as the reciprocal interaction of domestic and external factors that will ensure the continued success of the policy process and social development in future (Roziah Omar, et.al; 2006)

moral devolopment

Moral Development

Definition

Moral development is the process throught which children develop proper attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules, and laws.

Description

Moral development is a concern for every parent. Teaching a child to distinguish right from wrong and to behave accordingly is a goal of parenting.
Moral development is a complex issue that—since the beginning of human civilization—has been a topic of discussion among some of the world's most distinguished psychologists, theologians, and culture theorists. It was not studied scientifically until the late 1950s.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Reasoning

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, explored how children developed moral reasoning. He rejected the idea that children learn and internalize the rules and morals of society by being given the rules and forced to adhere to them. Through his research on how children formed their judgments about moral behavior, he recognized that children learn morality best by having to deal with others in groups. He reasoned that there was a process by which children conform to society's norms of what is right and wrong, and that the process was active rather than passive.
Piaget found two main differences in how children thought about moral behavior. Very young children's thinking is based on how actions affected them or what the results of an action were. For example, young children will say that when trying to reach a forbidden cookie jar, breaking 10 cups is worse than breaking one. They also recognize the sanctity of rules. For example, they understand that they cannot make up new rules to a game; they have to play by what the rule book says or what is commonly known to be the rules. Piaget called this "moral realism with objective responsibility." It explains why young children are concerned with outcomes rather than intentions.
Older children look at motives behind actions rather than consequences of actions. They are also able to examine rules, determining whether they are fair or not, and apply these rules and their modifications to situations requiring negotiation, assuring that everyone affected by the rules is treated fairly. Piaget felt that the best moral learning came from these cooperative decision-making and problem-solving events. He also believed that children developed moral reasoning quickly and at an early age.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, extended Piaget's work in cognitive reasoning intoadolescence and adulthood. He felt that moral development was a slow process and evolved over time. Still, his six stages of moral development, drafted in 1958, mirrors Piaget's early model. Kohlberg believed that individuals made progress by mastering each stage, one at a time. A person could not skip stages. He also felt that the only way to encourage growth through these stages was by discussion of moral dilemmas and by participation in consensus democracy within small groups. Consensus democracy was rule by agreement of the group, not majority rule. This would stimulate and broaden the thinking of children and adults, allowing them to progress from one stage to another.
PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL. The child at the first and most basic level, the preconventional level, is concerned with avoiding punishment and getting needs met. This level has two stages and applies to children up to 10 years of age.
Stage one is the Punishment-Obedience stage. Children obey rules because they are told to do so by an authority figure (parent or teacher), and they fearpunishment if they do not follow rules. Children at this stage are not able to see someone else's side.
Stage two is the Individual, Instrumentation, and Exchange stage. Here, the behavior is governed by moral reciprocity. The child will follow rules if there is a known benefit to him or her. Children at this stage alsomete out justice in an eye-for-an-eye manner or according to Golden Rule logic. In other words, if one child hits another, the injured child will hit back. This is considered equitable justice. Children in this stage are very concerned with what is fair.
Children will also make deals with each other and even adults. They will agree to behave in a certain way for a payoff. "I'll do this, if you will do that." Sometimes, the payoff is in the knowledge that behaving correctly is in the child's own best interest. They receive approval from authority figures or admiration from peers, avoid blame, or behave in accordance with their concept of self. They are just beginning to understand that others have their own needs and drives.

CONVENTIONAL LEVEL. This level broadens the scope of human wants and needs. Children in this level are concerned about being accepted by others and living up to their expectations. This stage begins around age 10 but lasts well into adulthood, and is the stage most adults remain at throughout their lives.
Stage three, Interpersonal Conformity, is often called the "good boy/good girl" stage. Here, children do the right thing because it is good for the family, peer group, team, school, or church. They understand the concepts of trust, loyalty, and gratitude. They abide by the Golden Rule as it applies to people around them every day. Morality is acting in accordance to what the social group says is right and moral.
Stage four is the Law and Order, or Social System and Conscience stage. Children and adults at this stage abide by the rules of the society in which they live. These laws and rules become the backbone for all right and wrong actions. Children and adults feel compelled to do their duty and show respect for authority. This is still moral behavior based on authority, but reflects a shift from the social group to society at large.

POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL. Some teenagers and adults move beyond conventional morality and enter morality based on reason, examining the relative values and opinions of the groups with which they interact. Few adults reach this stage.
Correct behavior is governed by the sixth stage, the Social Contract and Individual Rights stage. Individuals in this stage understand that codes of conduct are relative to their social group. This varies from culture to culture and subgroup to subgroup. With that in mind, the individual enters into a contract with fellow human beings to treat them fairly and kindly and to respect authority when it is equally moral and deserved. They also agree to obey laws and social rules of conduct that promote respect for individuals and value the few universal moral values that they recognize. Moral behavior and moral decisions are based on the greatest good for the greatest number.
Stage six is the Principled Conscience or the Universal/Ethical Principles stage. Here, individuals examine the validity of society's laws and govern themselves by what they consider to be universal moral principles, usually involving equal rights and respect. They obey laws and social rules that fall in line with these universal principles, but not others they deem asaberrant. Adults here are motivated by individual conscience that transcends cultural, religious, or social convention rules. Kohlberg recognized this last stage but found so few people who lived by this concept of moral behavior that he could not study it in detail.

Carol Gilligan and the Morality of Care

Kohlberg's and Piaget's theories have come under fire. Kohlberg's six stages of moral development, for example, have been criticized for elevating Western, urban, intellectual (upper class) understandings of morality, while discrediting rural, tribal, working class, or Eastern moral understandings. Feminists have pointed out potential sexist elements in moral development theories devised by male researchers using male subjects only (such as Kohlberg's early work). Because women's experiences in the world differ from men's in every culture, it would stand to reason that women's moral development might differ from men's, perhaps in significant ways.
Carol Gilligan deemed Kohlberg's research biased because he only used male subjects to reach his findings. Because of this, his model is based on a concept of morality based on equity and justice, which places most men in stage five or six. Gilligan found that women, who value social interaction more than men, base their moral decisions on a culture of caring for other human beings. This would place them at stage three, making women appear to be inferior morally to men. Men determine immorality based on treating others unfairly, and women base it on turning away someone in need.
Gilligan's work, however, doesn't solve the gender question, because newer research has found that both males and females often base their moral judgments and behaviors on both justice and care. Nevertheless, the morality of care theory opened up explorations of moral reasoning in many groups and cultures.

Bronfenbrenner

Urie Bronfenbrenner studied children and schools in different cultures since many ethnic, religious, and social groups often have their own rules for moral behavior. His research found five moral orientations, regardless of culture, social group, or developmental stage. Movement from the first stage to any of the others was dependent on participation in the family and other social institutions within each culture. Movement to the last stage involved exposure to a different moral system that might be in conflict with one's own. This moral pluralism forces individuals to examine their own moral reasoning and beliefs. This often occurs when people work in other countries or cultures and come face to face with different sets of moral conventions.
Bronfenbrenner also noted that individuals could slide back into a previous moral orientation when they experienced the breakdown of their familiar social order as in war, regime changes, genocide, famine, or large scale natural disasters that destroy social infrastructures. People narrow their attention to their own pressing needs and ignore the welfare of the larger society.
Self-oriented morality coincided with Kohlberg's pre-conventional morality. Behavior is based on self-interest and motivated by who can help children get what they want or who is hindering that process. This stage was found in all children and some adults in all cultures.
Authority-oriented morality again is similar to Kohlberg's Law and Order stage. This applies not only to parents' rules but to teachers, religious leaders, and government officials. This moral orientation was culturally defined. It was very evident in Middle Easterncultures where religious authority is the law.
Peer-authority morality is moral conformity based on the conventions and rules of a social group. This is evident among teenagers in Western cultures and even among some adults.
Collective-oriented morality is an extension of the peer-authority stage. Here a larger group's rule supercedes individual rights and interests. Duty is the law. This moral orientation was found in Asian cultures.
Objectively-oriented morality is akin to Kohlberg's universal principles stage. Here, however, these rules transcend individual moral perspectives and become entities in themselves. Like Kohlberg's last stage, this moral orientation was found in relatively few people in any culture.

Other Theories

There are several other approaches to the study of moral development, which are categorized in a variety of ways. Briefly, the social learning theory approach claims that humans develop morality by learning the rules of acceptable behavior from their external environment, an essentially behaviorist approach. Psychoanalytic theory proposes instead that morality develops through humans' conflict between their instinctual drives and the demands of society.Cognitive development theories view morality as an outgrowth of cognition, or reasoning, whereas personality theories are holistic in their approach, taking into account all the factors that contribute to human development.
The differences between these approaches rest on two questions: How moral are infants at birth? and How is moral maturity defined? The contrasting philosophies at the heart of the answers to these questions determine the essential perspective of each moral development theory. Those who believe infants are born with no moral sense tend toward social learning or behaviorist theories, because all morality must therefore be learned from the external environment. Others who believe humans are innately aggressive and completely self-oriented are more likely to accept psychoanalytic theories where morality is the learned management of socially destructive internal drives. Those who believe it is the reasoning abilities that separate humans from the rest of creation will find cognitive development theories the most attractive. And those who view humans as holistic beings born with a full range of potentialities will most likely be drawn to personality theories.
What constitutes mature morality is a subject of great controversy. Each society develops its own set of norms and standards for acceptable behavior, leading many to say that morality is entirely culturally conditioned. There is debate over whether or not this means that there are no universal truths, and no cross-cultural standards for human behavior. This debate fuels the critiques of many moral development theories.
Definitions of what is or is not moral are in a state of upheaval within individual societies. Controversies rage over the morality of warfare (especially nuclear), ecological conservation, genetic research and manipulation, alternative fertility and childbearing methods, abortion, sexuality, pornography, drug use,euthanasia, racism, sexism, and human rights issues, among others. Determining the limits of moral behavior becomes increasingly difficult as human capabilities, choices, and responsibilities proliferate with advances in technology and scientific knowledge. For example, prenatal testing techniques that determine birth defects in the womb force parents to make new moral choices about whether to give birth to a child.
The rise in crime, drug and alcohol abuse, gang violence, teen parenthood, and suicide in Western society has also caused a rise in concern over morality and moral development. Parents and teachers want to know how to raise moral children, and they turn to moral development theorists to find answers. Freudian personality theories became more widely known to the Western public in the 1960s and were understood to imply that repression of a child's natural drives would lead to neuroses. Many parents and teachers were therefore afraid to discipline their children, and permissiveness became the rule. Cognitive development theories did little to change things, as they focus on reasoning and disregard behavior. Behaviorist theories, with their complete denial of free will in moral decision-making, are unattractive to many and require precise, dedicated, behavior modification techniques.
Schools are returning to character education programs, popular in the 1920s and 1930s, where certain virtues such as honesty, fairness, and loyalty, are taught to students along with the regular academic subjects. Unfortunately, there is little or no agreement as to which virtues are important and what exactly each virtue entails.
Another approach to moral education that became popular in the 1960s and 1970s is known as values clarification or values modification. The purpose of these programs is to guide students to establish or discern their own system of values on which to base their moral decisions. Students are also taught that others may have different values systems, and that they must be tolerant of those differences. The advantages of this approach are that it promotes self-investigation and awareness and the development of internal moral motivations, which are more reliable than external motivations, and prevents fanaticism, authoritarianism, and moral coercion. The disadvantage is that it encourages moral relativism, the belief that "anything goes." Values clarification is generally seen as a valuable component of moral education, but incomplete on its own.
Lawrence Kohlberg devised a moral education program in the 1960s based on his cognitive development theory. Called the Just Community program, it utilizes age-appropriate or stage-appropriate discussions of moral dilemmas, democratic consensus rule-making, and the creation of a community context where students and teachers could act on their moral decisions. Just Community programs have been established in schools, prisons, and other institutions with a fair amount of success. Exposure to moral questions and the opportunity to practice moral behavior in a supportive community appear to foster deeper moral reasoning and more constructive behavior.
Overall, democratic family and school systems are much more likely to promote the development of internal self-controls and moral growth than are authoritarian or permissive systems. Permissive systems fail to instill any controls, while authoritarian systems instill only fear of punishment, which is not an effective deterrent unless there is a real chance of being caught or punishment becomes a reward because it brings attention to the offender. True moral behavior involves a number of internal processes that are best developed through warm, caring parenting with clear and consistent expectations, emphasis on the reinforcement of positive behaviors rather than the punishment of negative ones, modeling of moral behavior by adults, and creation of opportunities for the child to practice moral reasoning and actions.
According to personal (social) goal theory, moral behavior is motivated by the desire to satisfy a variety of personal and social goals, some of which are self-oriented (selfish), and some of which are other-oriented (altruistic). The four major internal motivations for moral behavior as presented by personal (social) goal theorists are: 1) empathy; 2) the belief that people are valuable in and of themselves and therefore should be helped; 3) the desire to fulfill moral rules; and 4) self-interest.
In social domain theory, moral reasoning is said to develop within particular social domains: 1) moral (e.g., welfare, justice, rights); 2) social-conventional (social rules for the orderly function of society); and 3) personal (pure self-interest, exempt from social or moral rules).
Most people have more than one moral voice and shift among them depending on the situation. In one context, a person may respond out of empathy and place care for an individual over concern for social rules. In a different context, that same person might instead insist on following social rules for the good of society, even though someone may suffer because of it. People also show a lack of consistent morality by sometimes choosing to act in a way that they know is not moral, while continuing to consider themselves moral people. This discrepancy between moral judgment (perceiving an act as morally right or wrong) and moral choice (deciding whether to act in the morally right way) can be explained in a number of ways, any one of which may be true in a given situation:

• weakness of will (the person is overwhelmed by desire)
• weakness of conscience (guilt feelings are not strong enough to overcome temptation)
• limited/flexible morality (some latitude allowed in moral behavior while still maintaining a "moral" identity)

The Moral Balance model proposes that most humans operate out of a limited or flexible morality. Rather than expecting moral perfection from ourselves or others, people set certain limits beyond which they cannot go. Within those limits, however, there is some flexibility in moral decision-making. Actions such as taking coins left in the change-box of a public telephone may be deemed acceptable (though not perfectly moral), whilestealing money from an open, unattended cash register is not. Many factors are involved in the determination of moral acceptability from situation to situation, and the limits on moral behavior are often slippery. If given proper encouragement and the opportunity to practice a coherent inner sense of morality, however, most people will develop a balanced morality to guide their day-to-day interactions with their world.

Common Problems

Religious development often goes hand in hand with moral development. Children's concepts of divinity, right and wrong, and who is ultimately responsible for the world's woes are shaped by the family and by the religious social group to which each child belongs. Their concepts also mirror cognitive and moral developmental stages.
In general, in the earliest stage (up to age two years), the child knows that religious objects and books are to be respected. The concept of a divine being is vague, but the child enjoys the regularity of the religious rituals such as prayer.
In the next stage (from two to 10 years), children begin to orient religion concepts to themselves as in thecatechism litany, "Who made you? God made me." The concept of a divine being is usually described inanthropomorphic ways for children around six years old. In other words, children perceive God to look like a human being only bigger or living in the sky. At this stage, God is physically powerful and often is portrayed as a superhero. God may also be the wish-granter and can fix anything. Children embrace religious holidays and rituals during this stage.
In the Intermediate Stage during pre-adolescence, children are considered to be in the pre-religious stage. The anthropomorphized divinity is pictured as being very old and wise. God is also thought of as doing supernatural things: having a halo, floating over the world, or performing miracles. Children in this stage understand the panoply of religious or divine beings within the religious belief system. For example, Christian children will distinguish between God and Jesus and the disciples or saints.
The last stage in adolescence focuses on personalizing religious rituals and drawing closer to a divine being. Teenagers begin to think of God in abstract terms and look at the mystical side of the religious experience. They may also rebel against organized religion as they begin to question the world and the rules around them.
Some adults who are considered highly religious consider God to be an anthropomorphized divine being or may reject the supernatural or mystical religious experience. This does not mean that these adults have somehow been arrested in their religious development. This just means that the variation among these stages is great and is determined by the particular religious community in which the individual is involved.

Parental Concerns

When to Call the Doctor

Every child misbehaves and will sometimes actselfishly and hurtfully. It is when these acts increase, impulses cannot be controlled, or authority defiance becomes troublesome, that parents may need to seek professional help. Lack of impulse control and authority defiance can be symptoms of medical conditions and psychological disorders. Self-centered behavior, coupled with lack of acceptance of wrongdoing that continues into older childhood and adolescence, may be a problem that requires family or individual counseling.
Risky behaviors such as speeding, drinking, smoking, doing drugs, or engaging in sexual behavior may be related to peer pressure and wanting to conform to the group or may be a way to defy authority. These behaviors, though deemed morally wrong by most societies, may also be symptoms of deeper psychological troubles.
Of extreme concern is the rare child who acts with no remorse, and appears to have to conscience. This is usually signaled by early violent outbursts, destructive behavior, or by acts of cruelty to pets or other children. After each incident, the child has a flat affect (no emotion) or fails to admit that there was anything wrong with the his or her actions. These children need intervention immediately. Behaviors such as these may be indicators of sociopathic disorders